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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 















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THE MODERN SERVICE 


OF 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


TELEGRAPHY, 


IN THEORY AND PRACTICE, 


ARRANGED IN QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 


Designed for Students and Operators. 


THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 




I884. 




-< V 
\ ' 




v 



Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1884, by 
J. P. ABERNETHY, 

In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


Electrotyped by 

Eclipse Electrotype and Engraving Co., 
Cleveland, Ohio. 


Printed and Bound at 
Publishing House of W. W. Williams, 
Cleveland, Ohio. 


I 


PREFACE. 


The preparation of this work was necessitated by the fact, 
that though many volumes had previously been published upon 
telegraphy, yet none of them were found to exhibit a thoroughly 
practical view of both commercial and railway telegraphy, 
including the railway station and express service, so brief, 
simple, and comprehensive, as to answer the purpose of a prac¬ 
tical text book. In the preparation of such a text book, two 
things demanded constant attention; first, that the time which 
the telegraphic student ordinarily devotes to the theory of his 
profession is very limited, and, second, that such students are 
generally unacquainted with science. For these reasons it was 
necessary that the statements of the work should be very con¬ 
cise, and yet clothed in language intelligible to the unlearned 
reader. Hence scientific terms and idioms have been generally 
discarded, and the work made as thoroughly practical as possi¬ 
ble, including, however, certain elementary principles of elec¬ 
trical science which are intimately associated with practical 
telegraphy, a knowledge of which should be acquired by all who 
aspire to recognition and position as telegraphers. Although 
there is almost an endless variety of contrivances for transmit¬ 
ting and receiving messages, involving different applications of 



4 


PREFACE. 


electric and chemical science, the author has generally confined 
himself to the common Morse telegraphic system, and its im¬ 
provements, as it is the system principally used in the commercial 
and railway service. For this reason many branches of electric 
science have been omitted. 

The method in which the work is composed (that of questions 
and answers), was chosen as being favorable to conciseness of 
statement, and at the same time, best adapted to use as a text 
book. 

In the compilation of this work, which has involved a great 
deal of time and labor, much practical and valuable informa¬ 
tion respecting both commercial and railway telegraphy, and 
the railway station and express service, has been carefully se¬ 
lected from a large amount of material gathered together, from 
the experience of efficient operators in all grades of service, and 
from official as well as from other reliable sources, in connec¬ 
tion with the most prominent telegraph, railway, and express 
companies in this country. Much assistance has also been 
gained, from the use of Prescott’s admirable work, Electricity 
and the Electric Telegraph, Culley’s Handbook of Practical 
Telegraphy, Jenkins’ Electricity and Magnetism, several other 
telegraphic works and telegraphic and railway journals, and 
many personal favors, for all of which the author’s acknowledg¬ 
ments and thanks are herewith respectfully returned. 


CONTENTS. 


PART FIRST. 

THE MORSE SYSTEM OF TELEGRAPHY. 


SECTION. PAGE. 


I.—Instruction for Beginners ...... 9, 

II.—Manipulation ....... 13 

III. —The Morse Telegraph Alphabet ..... 14 

IV. —Exercises in Manipulation ..... 19, 

V. —The Morse and the Continental or International Alphabet . 27 

VI.—Sending ........ 29 

VII.—Receiving or Reading by Sound . .... 30. 

VIII.—Penmanship ....... 33 

IX.—The Requisites for a First Class Operator . , . 39 

X.—Science in Telegraphy—Electrical Engineering . * 42 


PART SECOND. 

ELECTRICITY. 


SECTION. PAGE.. 

XI.—Electricity in General ...... 46 

XII.—Frictional Electricity ...... 50 

XIII. —Conduction, Insulation, and Induction . ... 52 

XIV. —Technical Terms—Electrical Units . , . 54 

XV.—Voltaic Electricity and the Means of Exciting It . .60 

XVI.—Magneto-Electricity ...... 73 

XVII.—Magnetism ....... 77 

XVIII.—Electro-Magnetism ...... 83 


XIX.—Thermo-Electricity—Atmospheric Electricity—Animal Electricity 86 




6 


CONTENTS. 


PART THIRD. 

THE TELEGRAPH. 


SECTION. 

XX.—Relation of Circuits and Instruments . . 

XXI.—The Line or Main Circuit , • 

XXII.—The Local Circuit ..... 

XXIII.—The Key ....... 

XXIV.—The Relay ...... 

XXV.—The Register and Sounder ..... 

XXVI.—The Box Relay or Main Line Sounder 
XXVII.—Arrangement of the Morse Apparatus and Care of the Instru¬ 
ments . ...... 

XXVIII.—The Repeater ....... 

XXIX.—The Duplex 

XXX.—The Quadruplex ...... 

XXXI.—The Gray Harmonic System .... 

XXXII.—Switches or Cut Outs—Switch Boards—Ground Wires and 
Lightning Arresters ..... 

XXXIII.—The Galvanometer— The Wheatstone Bridge—Resistance 
Coils—Rheostat—Condenser—Voltameter and Electro¬ 
meter ....... 

XXXIV.—Telegraph Faults or Interruptions 
XXXV.—Ordinary Testing—Electrical Measurement 
XXXVI.—Submarine Telegraphy—The Atlantic Cables . . . 

XXXVII.—The Telephone. 


PART FOURTH. 
COMMERCIAL BUSINESS. 


SECTION. 

XXXVIII.—Management of Commercial Offices .... 

XXXIX.—The Operating Department .... 

XL.—Messages—General Information—Associated Press—United 
States Signal Service, and Stock, and Produce Quota¬ 
tions ...... 

XLI.—Transmission of Messages 

XLII.—Receiving and Delivery of Messages .... 
XLI 11 .—Telegraph Bookkeeping and Monthly Reports 


PAGE. 

92 

94 

no 

in 

116 

121 

123 

125 

129 

133 

140 

146 

151 


158 

168 

174 

182 

186 


PAGE. 

I94 

197 


199 

213 

224 

230 



CONTENTS. 


1 


PART FIFTH. 

RAILWAY TELEGRAPHY. 


SECTION. 

XLIV.—Management of Railway Offices—Train Despatches’ and 
Operators’ Duties—Circuit Regulations—Commercial 
Business—Car Reports or Statements—Time by Tele¬ 
graph ....... 

XLV.—Classification of Trains—Technical Terms . 

XLVI.—Railway Signals—Electric Safety Signals 
XLVII.—Numerals and Abbreviations .... 

XLVIII.—Movement of Trains by Special Telegraphic Order 

XLIX.—Forms of Telegraphic Train Orders . . . 

L.—The “ Absolute Block ” System of Train Dispatching as used 
on the Pennsylvania Railway . , , , 


PART SIXTH. 


RAILWAY STATION SERVICE. 


SECTION. 

LI.—Management of Railway Stations 
LI I.—Freight Department 
LIII.—Passenger or Ticket Department . 

L 1 V.—Baggage Department . 

LV.—Railway Station Accounts 
LVI.—Express Business—General Information 
LVII.—Forwarding of Express Matter 
LVIII.—Delivery of Express Matter 


♦ t 9 


PART SEVENTH. 


APPENDIX. 


SECTION. 

LIX.—Standard Time 
LX.—Uniform Train Signals . 

LXI.—Telegraphic and Railway Notes 


PAGE. 


234 

248 

252 

262 

264 

282 

289 


PAGE. 

298 

300 

302 

304 

3°5 

307 

3 IX 

316 


PAGE. 

3 l 9 

323 

331 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIGURE. PAGE. 

1. —Learner’s Instrument ....... io 

2. —Position of Hand and Movement ..... 13 

3. —Gravity Battery . . . . . . . .66 

4. —Electro Magnet ....... 83 

5. —Wire Splice ........ 100 

6. —Key . . . . . . . . . in 

7. —Cumming Periphery Key . . . . . .113 

8. —Bunnell Steel Lever Key . . . . . . 

9. —Victor Key ........ 

10. —Relay ..... . . 116 

11. —Siemens Polarized Relay . . ... 120 

12. —Sounder ..... ... 121 

13. —Box Relay ... .... 123 

14. —Western Union Pin Switch . . . . j-j 

15. — Plug Cut Out . . ..... 152 

16. —Diagram of Pin Switch ..... 154 

17. —Detector Galvanometer ...... 158 

18. —Differential Galvanometer ...... j6 2 

19. —Rheostat ......... 166 

20. —Railway ........ 232 

21. —Block Signal Station, Pennsylvania Railway .... 293 

22. —Train go ahead ....... 325 

23. — “ stop ...... 325 

24. — “ back up ....... 326 

25. — “ parted ....... 326 













PART FIRST. 


CBG^mOR5G^$YSCem^OF^TGLGGKAPRY. 


SECTION I. 

INSTRUCTION FOR BEGINNERS. 

To acquire a thorough knowledge of telegraphy, the student 
should bear in mind at the begi?i?iing that proper attention must 
be given to the principles upon which telegraphs are operated 
and the apparatus employed. To become an expert operator 
requires much time and patience, together with unwearied appli¬ 
cation. Remember that great results cannot be expected from 
little labor, and whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing 
well. 

There is no duty of an operator which any person of ordinary 
ability may not readily perform, if they will but bestow the at¬ 
tention which they should willingly give to any undertaking. 

Paper operators are now rare, and the student should learn 
to read by sound at once. It is as easy to cultivate the ear as 
the eye ; reading by sound leaves the sight free to direct the 
hand in copying messages. 

Each lesson should be mastered before another is undertaken. 
Nothing is gained by rushing hurriedly over the ground. No. 




IO 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


business can be learned in a day; and telegraphy requires care¬ 
ful, methodical drill and study. It is better for two or more 
persons to practice together, taking turns in sending. 

The basis of the whole telegraphic apparatus is the battery , 
the transmitting key , and the electro magnet (each described 
elsewhere); the essential part of the apparatus being the bat¬ 
tery, as it is from the chemical action created therein that is 
first generated the electric current, which is made to traverse 
long or short distances through the conducting medium of 
metallic wires. 



Fig. i. 


The instruments required for new beginners are practically the 
Morse sounder and key, separate, or attached to the same base, 
(see fig. i), and the battery for generating the electricity. The 
instruments should be securely fastened near the center of the 
table used for the purpose. And, if the sounder and key are 
separate, the key should be placed at the right hand side in such 
a position that the arm may obtain a rest while sending, and the 
sounder placed at the left hand side. To receive the conduct¬ 
ing wires small holes should be bored near the sounder binding 
posts, and larger ones to receive the legs of the key, which is 
then securely placed in its proper position. The instruments 
are then connected with the battery as follows: Starting from 
the battery run one wire to one of the binding posts of the in- 











TELEGRAPHY. 


I I 

strument, and another wire from the opposite side of the battery 
to the other post of the instrument. When covered wire is used 
always bare the ends where the connections are made. If a key 
is used separately, cut one of the wires and fasten the ends to 
each leg of the key. See that all the screws are made tight, 
and that the sounder-lever works freely but not too far from the 
magnets. The spring which draws the armature lever upwards 
must have the right tension to allow the armature to respond to 
the magnet. 

When the key is closed, a current from the battery will pass 
through the wire and magnet, and cause the latter to attract the 
armature, and the instant the key is opened the current will 
cease to flow, the magnet cease to attract, and the spring will 
draw the armature away. In this way the armature is made to 
follow exactly the movements of the key, no matter at what dis¬ 
tance they may be placed from each other, although in practice 
it is found that as the circuits are lengthened more battery 
power is required. When additional instruments are connected 
in the same circuit, the “circuit-breaker” at the side of the key 
should always be open while sending, and dosed for receiving , 
but if not in connection with other instruments, it may be left 
open all the time. 

TO CONNECT TWO INSTRUMENTS TOGETHER FOR PRACTICE. 

The return circuit may be made either by a continuous wire, 
or by connection with the earth at each end. For wires but a 
short distance in length, the return wire is best. 

Starting from the respective poles of the battery, run a wire 
to one of the binding posts of each instrument, and then con¬ 
nect the remaining binding posts by a third wire. For two in¬ 
struments in connection, not farther than one hundred feet apart, 
use two or three cells of battery, adding one cell for each addi¬ 
tional instrument connected to the same wire. 


12 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


PRIVATE LINES. 

In the construction of short outdoor lines of over a quarter 
of a mile in length, only one wire is necessary, the earth being 
used for the return circuit. For such lines “No. 12 galvanized 
iron wire ” is the least expensive wire suitable for the purpose, 
copper being used inside of offices and buildings, covered with a 
coating of gutta percha, or wrapped with a continuous covering 
of cotton or silk. 

The only instruments required for short lines are practically 
the Morse sounder and key. The sounder, however, must be of 
the proper resistance. The resistance of all the instruments on 
the line should be equal to the resistance of the battery and 
line. For lines between one and ten miles in length the instru¬ 
ments are required to have their magnets wound with finer wires 
than those used on circuits of less than one mile. Such instru¬ 
ments are from 10 to 30 ohms resistance, according to length 
of line. 

The gravity battery is used for short lines, and should be 
placed in connection with the line between the instrument and 
ground connection, all at one end of the line, or part at one end 
and part at the other. 

If it is found when one or more instruments are properly con¬ 
nected in a circuit according to directions, it or they do not 
work with enough strength to give the amount of sound wanted, 
addition of more battery will produce better results. Add one 
cell for each quarter of a mile added to the length of the wire 

up to one mile, and then two or three cells for each addi¬ 
tional mile. 

Note.—F or further information regarding “lines” see Section "XXI." 


TELEGRAPHY, 


13 


SECTION II. 

MANIPULATION. 

Manipulation or sending is the operation of forming tele¬ 
graphic signals upon the instrument called the key, by means of 
which, when in connection with the proper instruments and 
battery (herein described), is made to give out audible signals, 
which, being arranged in the form of an alphabet, enables us to 
read or speak, as it were, from a distance. 



Fig. 2.-POSITION OF HAND AND MOVEMENT. 

Manner of holding the key .—Place the first two fingers on the 
top of the key knob with the thumb under the edge, and the 
second finger a little on the opposite side, curve the first and 
second fingers so as to form the quarter section of a circle, par¬ 
tially close the third and fourth fingers (see Fig. 2), allow the 
wrist to be perfectly-limber. Rest the arm on the table at or 
near the elbow 3 let the grasp upon the key be firm but not rigid; 
never allow the fingers or thumb (while sending) to leave the 
key, nor the elbow to leave the table; avoid too much force or 
too light touch, and strive for a medium, firm closing of the 
key. Learn to handle the key as easily as you would a pen. 

The motion to be imparted is directly up and down, avoiding 

all side pressure. 

The movement is made principally at the wrist, although the 
finger and hand must be perfectly elastic. 
















14 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


The fingers, wrist, and arm should move uniformly in the 
same direction. 

The downward movements produce the dots and dashes, and 
the upward the breaks and spaces. 

Tapping upon the key should be carefully avoided. 

Never attempt to write with a finger movement. The fingers 
should be used merely to grasp the key. 


SECTION III. 

THE MORSE TELEGRAPHIC ALPHABET. 

Morse, in the arrangement of his conventional telegraphic 
alphabet, took as a unit of space or length the shortest available 
length of line, technically termed a dot . His alphabet was then 
made up of signs, forty-five in number, formed from three ele¬ 
ments, the DOT, the SPACE, and the DASH, arranged in va¬ 
rious combinations representing the following relative values : 


The dot.One unit 

The space or break between the elements of a letter. . One unit 

The space, employed in the “spaced letters”.Two units 

The space separating the letters of a word.Three units 

The space separating w r ords.Six units 

The short dash.Three units 

The long dash..Six units 


“ Prof. S. F. B. Morse, in considering the mechanical means at 
command for producing at a distance any permanent mark, per¬ 
ceived that by means of the electro-magnet the motion of a 
lever, up and down, could be easily and surely commanded ; 
and if a pencil at one extremity of it were made to strike upon 
a piece of paper, a dot would be made whenever the magnet 










TELEGRAPHY. 


15 


was charged and quickly discharged. This action, however, 
without a further device, would be unavailing to produce variety 
since the lever motion is limited to the simple movement of up 
and down. Hence the idea of moving the paper at a regular 
rate beneath the pencil. Thus a dot could be made on the 
moving ribbon of paper, which, passing onward, the paper was 
ready to receive (after an interval more or less extended) another 
dot or series of dots. Thus the ability to produce dots in 
groups at pleasure was demonstrated, and, consequently, groups 
of dots expressive of various numerals were devised. In pur¬ 
suing the experiments with the numerals whose elements were a 
simple dot and space , it was perceived that, by means of the 
moving paper, not merely a dot could be produced at pleasure, 
but if the magnet was kept charged while the paper was in 
movement, the pencil produced a line long in proportion to the 
time in which the magnet was charged. This fact introduced a 
third element for combination, to produce variety in the groups, 
indicating letters as well as numerals, to wit: the line or dash; 
so that dots, spaces , and lines in any variety of combination were 
at command for forming a code of signs. Hence originated 
what is now universally recognized as the Morse code.” 

In the arrangement of the alphabet it was desired that no 
letter should occupy more than five dots, or nine units in length; 
and none of them, with the single exception of the letter J, ex¬ 
ceeds that number. Another principle was specially observed, 
that of the letters occurring most frequently in the English 
language, were therefore composed of the fewest and shortest 
elements. The letter E is thus represented by a single dot; 
the I and T within the space of two dots or three units, and so 
on. The numerals were comprised within the value of six dots, 
or eleven units, to distinguish them more readily from the letters. 

The dot , the unit of length in the alphabet, though in reality 
a short line, representing the letter E, is produced by a firm 
downward movement of the key-lever, immediately succeeded 


i6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


by a quick upward motion. The combined duration of these 
movements should about equal the time occupied in pronounc¬ 
ing the word //, care being taken not to delay the upward mo¬ 
tion, thereby prolonging the dot into a dash. 

The space is produced by the upward movement of the key ; 
the four different kinds of spaces employed indicating the in¬ 
tervals or length of time the key should be raised. 

The break is the instantaneous interval between the elements 
of a letter, produced by the quick upward and downward move¬ 
ment of the key, separating the dots and dashes from each other. 
The downward position of the key must always be taken for the 
commencement of the following dot or dash, comprising a let¬ 
ter. It must be continually borne in mind that every character 
not containing a space, must be compact, and not open and 
disjointed, so as to entirely change the meaning by a division of 
one character into two or more shorter ones. 

The spaced letters , six in number, viz: C, O, R, Y, Z, and &, 
termed spaced letters because they contain a space in the body 
of the letter, equal to two units or one dot and break. They 
were thus arranged with the intention of securing economy of 
space and time, but they possess the practical defect of being 
liable to be confounded with other letters or combinations of let¬ 
ters, unless very carefully transmitted. These letters cause the 
most telegraphic errors, although the number of words in the 
English language which are liable to be mistaken for each other 
when written in this way are very small; however, it should be 
remembered that words containing spaced letters must be trans¬ 
mitted with caution, and such letters made plain, separate and 
distinct. 

The space betwee?i the letters of a word is equal to three units 
or two dots and breaks. An exception to this rule, however, is 
made in double E, which must contain a space nearly as great 
as that between words, and double L, or two or more ciphers 


TELEGRAPHY. 


17 


n£ed not be spaced, as when properly made they cannot be 
mistaken for anything else. 

In words largely composed of dots and spaced letters, the 
spaces should be more than usual between the letters, viz ; 

Seen Erie 


Receive Cicero 


Uniformity of space between letters and the correct proportion of 
letters themselves, is of great i?nportance, especially in regard to Ta 
and K, An, We, and figure 1 , Me and G, Te and N, Ti and D, 
Th and 8, Ts and B, St and V, It and U, In and Q, At and W, 
and the letters Ke and J. 

If properly made the ear of a practical operator will readily 
distinguish the telegraphic signals, however rapidly they may be 
transmitted. The sense of a message is often entirely changed 
by bad spacing. 

The space between words is equal to six units or three dots and 
breaks . A very common fault is to run the words too closely 
together, which causes more trouble in reading than any other 
one feature of poor transmission. Uniformity of space between 
words is of as much importance as between the letters. However 
rapid the writing the various spaces should have the same rela¬ 
tive length. Double the usual space should be left between 
initials, and, in large numbers, a short space is usually made 
between every three figures. 

1,000.-- 

1,500.--- 

18,507.----- 

21,369. ..... 

The short dash is equal to three units or three dots. When 
uncombined it represents the letter T, but enters into various 











1 8 COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

combinations, however, with the dot or with itself. It is pro¬ 
duced by holding the key down as long as it takes to make 
three dots, or in other words holding the key lever down long 
enough to pronounce the word seat , taking care that the upward 
movement does not occur until the final sound of the word has 
been fully completed. In the attempt to write fast the tendency 
is to make the dash too short; this should be carefully guarded 
against with the utmost vigilance. 

The long dash is equal to six units or six dots. When used 
as an initial or when joined with other letters, it always repre¬ 
sents L; but when found with figures it is always a cipher. The 
long dash is never used in combination. The original intention 
was to use a longer dash for the cipher, prolonging it so as to 
occupy the time required for nine dots, but practice has made 
no difference in them. The general tendency is to make the L 
dash too short, even by advanced students and practical opera¬ 
tors, thereby causing many errors through misinterpretation for 
M or double T. It is better to make the L dash a little too 
long than too short, as then it cannot be mistaken. 

SPECIAL NOTICE. 

In telegraphic manipulation the law of intervals, and length 
of time, is just as essential as in music. However rapid the 
writing the various spaces, dots, and dashes must be uniform 
and proportionate to each other or the characters will be imper¬ 
fect. The unit may vary in length according to circumstances, 
but the elements should always have the same relative value. 
For instance, in working over a long circuit, especially when 
wires are working hard, it is often necessary to make the dot 
longer perhaps than the dash is made under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances. In such case the spaces and dashes should have 
a corresponding length. In writing, the fingers should not be 
removed from the key during the short intervals, but the thumb 


TELEGRAPHY. 


19 


should pull up gently on the button when the spaces or breaks 
occur. 


Each character of the alphabet should be thoroughly im¬ 
pressed on the memory without reference to the position of other 
letters before commencing to practice them. When once the 
principles and characters of the alphabet are thoroughly under¬ 
stood and impressed on the memory, so that the mind has noth¬ 
ing to do but attend to the mechanical movement, the process 
of learning at the instrument is easier and more rapidly acquired. 

The following characters will be found to be the reverse of 
each other. They should be memorized so that each can be 
called to mind at will without hesitation: 

A-and N-, B-and V-, C-and R-, 

D --and U —— G-and W-, J-- and 

Comma-, Q-and X-, Z-and &-, 

and figure 4,-and 8-. 


SECTION IV. 

EXERCISES IN MANIPULATION. 

After the student has attained proficiency in the elementary 
principles, the following exercises should be practiced in regular 
order. Each character repeated over and over until it can be 
made correctly at will. In no case should the student attempt the 
practice of the letters in alphabetical order; neither should he 
endeavor to write his name nor any other words, until he has 
thoroughly mastered these exercises. In the first exercise dashes 
are given, in order that the habit of writing firmly may be acquired 
at the very start. When the first exercise consists of dots, the 
student is liable to form a habit of making short, light dots, or 
“clipping,” which he will find very difficult to overcome. Firm, 




20 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


steady sending should be attained at any expense of time and 
practice. The prevailing idea among beginners, is that it is an 
easy matter to learn to send, and that rapidity in sending, and 
proficiency in receiving, or reading by sound, is all that is re¬ 
quired, hence neglect the necessary careful practice to attain 
proficiency in sending, but instead acquire a careless habit by 
attempting to send too fast, with an utter disregard of uniformity 
and proportion of the characters to each other. An excellent 
rule for beginners is to limit their sending to one-third 7 nore 
than they can receive by sound and never to attempt to send 
faster. 

As it is better not to practice the alphabet in regular order 
the letters are placed in the following exercises in groups, each 
of which forms an exercise, which should be practiced until 
thoroughly mastered before commencing the next. Nearly 
every new beginner has his particularly hard letter to overcome, 
and finds it necessary to keep practicing on it for hours to train 
his fingers to make it correctly. 

In order to make the letters correctly, perfect control of the 
use of the key is very desirable, hence the fingers should be 
trained to its use, and each exercise repeated over and over 
again until the finger joints seem to relax, and perfect control of 
the key is gained. 


FIRST EXERCISE. 

DASHES IN SUCCESSION. 

Commence by making a succession of dashes, first at the 
rate of about one per second, which may be afterwards grad¬ 
ually increased to two or three. Special care must be taken to 
make the break between the dashes as short as possible. If a 
full movement be employed, the dashes cannot be too close to 
each other. The tendency is always to introduce too much 
space between the dashes ; great care must be taken to over- 




TELEGRAPHY. 


21 


come this, remembering that every character not containing a 
space must be compact and not open and disjointed. 


Separate dashes representing the letter T, and L, or cipher. 
Do not make T too long, or L too short. 


SECOND EXERCISE. 

DOTS IN SUCCESSION. 

Commence by making a succession of dots with as much 
regularity as possible, at the rate of about five per second, in¬ 
creasing the speed as skill is acquired, until they are produced 
with the regularity of clock-work, and of definite and uniform 
duration. The tick of a watch or clock will assist in doing this. 

Separate dots representing the letter E. 


THIRD EXERCISE. 

DASH LETTERS. 

T M 5 L or cipher. 

In practicing this exercise care should be taken to proportion 
the short and long dashes accurately, and in making the char¬ 
acters which consist of more than one dash special care must be 
taken that they follow each other as closely as possible, and that 
the final dash in each letter should exactly equal the preceding 
ones. Beginners usually make the final dash too short. 

FOURTH EXERCISE. 

DOT LETTERS. 

E I S H P 6 


















22 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Practice these separately until the right number of dots can 
be made. Let the dots be of equal length; beginners are very 
liable to prolong the last dot into a dash. This may be avoided 
by making the last dot with a movement seemingly quicker than 
that employed for the others. When each signal can be made 
perfectly, and represented exactly by the right number of dots, 
write them in succession a number of times forward .and back¬ 
ward, making each but once before proceeding to the next. 


FIFTH EXERCISE. 

A DASH CLOSELY FOLLOWED BY A DOT REPRESENTING THE LETTER N. 


This exercise will be found more difficult. Beginners are . 
liable to shorten the dash and lengthen the dot, producing the 
letter A. But the greatest obstacle to be overcome is the ten¬ 
dency to prolong the break, thus producing Te. Remember 
that the downward position of the key must be taken as the 
starting point for the dot. The movement may be timed by 
the pronunciation of ?iine-ty slowly, dwelling on the first syllable 
somewhat. 


SIXTH EXERCISE. 

A DOT WITH A DASH CLOSELY FOLLOWING REPRESENTING THE LETTER A. 


In this exercise there is a strong tendency to separate the 
dot from the dash by a prolonged interval, and also to make the 
dot too long and the dash much too short. The movement may 
be timed by pronouncing the word against with a strong accent 
upon the last syllable. The final sound (st) should represent 
the upward movement terminating the dash. 





TELEGRAPHY. 


23 


SEVENTH EXERCISE. 

SPACED LETTERS. 

o R & c Y Z 

These are termed spaced letters, and require great care to 
make them correctly. The space should be just double that 
ordinarily used between the elements of a letter. The usual 
tendency is to make it too great. It should only be sufficient to 
distinguish these characters from I, S, and H. 


EIGHTH EXERCISE. 

DASH, WITH DOTS, IN SUCCESSION. 

N D B 8 

Having thoroughly mastered the preceding exercises, the stu¬ 
dent will have no difficulty in forming the above characters. 
Make them as in I, S, H, and P, prolonging the first dot. Avoid 
leaving any space between them, and be careful not to make the 
last dot a dash. 


NINTH EXERCISE. 

DOTS, WITH A DASH IN SUCCESSION. 

A U V 4 

The usual tendency to make too much space between the dot 
and dash in the above letters may be avoided by making them 
* as if prolonging the final dot in I, S, H, and P. Counting the 
dots and prolonging the last one is of aid in practicing this exer¬ 
cise. Always make the dots close together, and let the dash fol¬ 
low the dots as closely as possible. Avoid making the dash too 
short. 




24 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


TENTH EXERCISE. 

CHARACTERS GROUPED TOGETHER. 

IANSUDHV BP 

4 § 

These should be practiced in groups, as arranged in this exer¬ 
cise, the object being to impress on the student the difference 
in the characters thus grouped together. 


ELEVENTH EXERCISE. 

DASHES AND DOTS IN MIXED. COMBINATION, EACH COMMENCING WITH A 

DASH. 

G 7 K J 9 Interrogation 


Special care must be taken to make these characters com¬ 
pact, and the dashes to correspond in length. K and J, are 
generally considered the most difficult letters in the alphabet. 
The tendency is to separate K into N T, and J into double N. 
This may be overcome by forming a close combination of T A 
for K, and T F for J, and figure 9 may be formed from T U r 
and interrogation from T Q. Do not make D for K. Drill 
upon this exercise until perfection is attained. 

TWELFTH EXERCISE. 

DOTS AND DASHES IN MIXED COMBINATION, EACH COMMENCING WITH A DOT* 

W F X 1 Comma 

The principal caution necessary in this exercise is to form the 
letters compactly, with the dashes of proper and equal length. 
Do not separate W into A T, X into E D, or make F for W. 





TELEGRAPHY. 


2 5 


THIRTEENTH EXERCISE. 

DOTS AND DASHES IN MIXED COMBINATION, EACH COMMENCING WITH DOTS. 

Q 3 2 Period 

These require no particular directions, except the caution to 
form the letters compactly, and to make the dashes of proper 
length. U E, when connected together, will form Q; V E, 
figure 3 ; U I, figure 2 ; and U D, the period. 


FOURTEENTH EXERCISE. 
ADDITIONAL PUNCTUATIONS. 


Exclamation 

Quotation 

Paragraph 

Semi-colon 

Parenthesis 

Italics 


These punctuations complete the Morse characters, but the 
semi-colon, parenthesis, and italics are but little used on the 
American lines, particular words being emphasized by separat¬ 
ing the letters a little more than usual, but when the quotation, 
parenthesis, or italics are used they precede and follow the words 
to which they belong. The paragraph signifies begin another 
line. On the Associated Press lines, between New York and 
Washington, certain combinations of letters, not liable to be 
confounded with anything else, are substituted for the following 
punctuations : 

Semi-colon “ie” Dash “dx” 

Colon “ko” Parenthesis “pn” 

Quotation “qn” 


The following character-has recently been proposed, 

and to some extent adopted, for the cipher, instead of the 
dash, to distinguish it from the letter L. Its general adoption* 








26 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


or some other convenient character, not liable to be confounded 
with others, would seem to be desirable. 


FIFTEENTH EXERCISE. 

FRACTIONS. 

Fractions are made by substituting a dot for a hyphen be¬ 
tween the figures. 

1-2 I ~4 


i-3 

3-5 

1 

00 

9-10 


I I-I 2 


No sign for dollars or cents is employed, consequently these 
words must be written out in full—indeed nothing can be tele¬ 
graphed which cannot be spelled. 

Practice the preceding exercises thoroughly, forward and 
backward, and by selection, until every character can be made 
at will correctly, before practicing them in alphabetical order. 

No mental effort whatever is required of a practical operator 
to construct a Morse letter the moment his eyes come to it. 








TELEGRAPHY. 


27 


SECTION V. 

THE MORSE AND THE CONTINENTAL OR INTERNATIONAL 

ALPHABET. 

MORSE ALPHABET. 

abcdef gh 

1 J K L M N O P 

Q RSTUV W X 

Y Z & 

NUMERALS. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

7890 

PUNCTUATIONS. 

Period. Comma. Semi-colon. Quotation. Parenthesis. 


Interrogation. Italics. Paragraph. Exclamation. 


CONTINENTAL OR INTERNATIONAL ALPHABET. 

(Not used in America.) 

Upon the introduction of the Morse system into Germany 
many years ago, an important arrangement of the alphabet was 
devised, called the Continental or International Alphabet , and 
this has been adopted and become universal on all submarine 
cables as well as land lines, in all parts of the world where the 






28 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Morse apparatus is used, except in America. It is founded on 
the Morse, and the only letters that differ from the Morse are c, 
f, j, 1, o, p, q, r, x, y, z,—the additional letters peculiar to foreign 
languages are it (se), 6 (oe), ii (ue), eh e, n. The figures are all 
different except the figure 4. All these letters and figures are 
made by dots and lines the same as the Morse, and only differ 
in their relative position. 


THE CONTINENTAL ALPHABET. 

LETTERS. 

A, -— J,- S, — 

B, - K,- T, — 

C, - L,- U, -- 

D, - M,- V,- 

E, - N,- W,- 

F, - O,- X,- 

G, - P,- Y,- 

H, ---- Q,- Z,- 

I, -- R, -- 

CH,-U,- 

• • r 

A,- E,- 

0 ,- N,- 

NUMERALS. 

2,- 6,- 9,- 

3>- 7>- - 

4 ) 

PUNCTUATION, ETC. 

Period,- Inverted Commas,-- 

Comma,- Fresh Paragraph,-- 

Interrogation,- Understand,- 

Exclamation,-- Wait,-- - 







TELEGRAPHY. 


29 


Apostrophe,- Erase,. 

Hyphen,- Call Signal,- 

Parenthesis, -- End of Message,- 

I don’t understand,-- 

Cleared out all right,- 

The accented e is important in French to distinguish between 
the past participle and the present tense. The apostrophe is 
equally necessary in French, thus : C’est 1 ’ intention de 1 ’ Em- 
pereur, etc. The a 6 u are important in German. The 
Spanish n is seldom used. The period (.) is generally written 
in three pairs, the mind counting three more easily than six, 

thus . The erasure is frequently divided into three 

threes, and for the same reason, thus :- It is used 

as follows : Suppose the operator to have misspelled a word, 
he gives the nine dots (the eraser signal), goes back to the word 
before the error, repeats it, and continues. 

It will be noticed that in the international code each numeral 
is composed of five elements, systematically arranged, the first 
half checking the second half of the character, and so rendering 
them as free from ambiguity as they are easy of recollection by 
the mind.— Prescott. 


SECTION VI. 

SENDING. 

When proficiency has been attained in the preceding exer¬ 
cises, the transmission of words and sentences may next 
be taken up; small words at first, and then short sentences 
for practice, always being careful to write one correctly before 
commencing another. Great benefit may be derived from 
considerable practice upon such combinations as tel , let , little , 












3° 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


lake, train, jaw, knoll, knot, need, nod, ice, rice, person, poison , 
Mississippi. If a mistake is made in any letter of a word, always 
repeat the word until written correctly, and always remember the 
rule in regard to spacing between letters and words. Practice 
sending words and sentences from memory as well as from look¬ 
ing at a copy. Send slowly and carefully at first, striving for 
accuracy rather than speed. Speed will come by practice. 
Cultivate a firm, even, smooth style of sending. The fast, care¬ 
less senders do not dispatch the most business. Graduate your 
sending to the capacity of the receiver, and never crowd him. 

The custom of timing for the purpose of ascertaining rate of 
manipulation, should be very sparingly indulged in by the stu¬ 
dent, except under the direction of his or her instructor; it is apt 
to induce careless habits. There are almost as many styles of 
sending among operators as of penmanship. It is quite possible 
on a line where a number of operators work, to tell each one by 
his manner of manipulating the key. All have their peculiari¬ 
ties. 

There are few operators capable of sending and receiving 
forty-five words per minute. Forty words is very rapid work. 
The average speed does not reach thirty words. Probably the 
average is about twenty-five words; and of the faster wires thirty 
words per minute. A careful and correct style of transmission* 
however, is regarded as of far 7 nore value than mere rapidity. 


SECTION VII. 

“ RECEIVING,” OR READING BY SOUND. 

When the letters of the alphabet are thoroughly impressed 
upon the memory, and the mechanical movement so thoroughly 
acquired that the student can send readily and correctly, reading 
by sound may next be taken up. As one cannot read by sound 
from his own writing, it is necessary for another person to ma- 



TELEGRAPHY. 


31 


nipulate the key which operates the sounder, making the letters, 
while the other by listening endeavors to name them. The one 
who writes on the key, however, must make the signals dis¬ 
tinctly and correctly, or they cannot possibly be distinguished 
by the other. The best result is obtained by a practical oper¬ 
ator manipulating the key, although good practice can be 
obtained by two beginners practicing together, taking turns at 
reading and sending, and each correcting the faults of the 
other. 

It should be remembered that there is no change in the 
tone of a sounder, the letter being determined solely by the 
“time or times” the lever is up or down. The movement of 
the lever to and from the magnet between the screws and 
striking against them produces the sounds, representing dots, 
dashes, and spaces, the downward movement the dots and 
dashes, the upward movement the breaks and spaces, the dura¬ 
tion of each controlled by the key which opens and closes 
the circuit. The back stroke, so-called, is as necessary to read¬ 
ing by sound as the down stroke, and these must be distin¬ 
guished each from the other, for without it the duration of the 
downward movement could not be determined. 

In reading by sound the practice should commence by re¬ 
ceiving letters by sound and copying them, continuing this prac¬ 
tice until each letter is recognized instantly, then practice receiv¬ 
ing entire words , slowly at first, and from that to slow writing, 
gradually increasing the speed, until capable of receiving and 
copying rapid writing. 

If a word is missed or not received correctly, open the key 
and repeat the last word received. If every word is missed 
or not received correctly, open the key and say “RR” [meaning 
repeat]. Don’t be afraid or ashamed to “break” or ask for 
information—better fifty breaks or questions than one error. 

The beginner should early accustom himself to copy that 
which he receives, keeping as far behind transmission as possible. 


32 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


This necessarily divides the attention and requires the exercise 
of the memory, hence somewhat difficult to attain, but it must be 
accomplished to become a good receiver of rapid “sending.” 
An expert operator never proceeds to write down what he 
receives until several words have been transmitted. He then copies 
the first part of the message while receiving the latter part. Of 
course the student will not be able to accomplish this without 
unwearied application. At first the ability of keeping only a 
word or two behind will be attained, but persistent practice and 
experience will accomplish much. 

When able to make a legible copy at’an average of eighteen 
or twenty words per minute, the student should practice on a 
short circuit, or on a regular line, if an opportunity is given, in 
taking regular commercial messages, press, market reports, 
tram reports, train orders, etc., etc., in order to become thor¬ 
oughly accustomed to actual business forms, and secure the nec¬ 
essary experience which only can be acquired by office practice. 

To acquire the ability of distinguishing between the confu¬ 
sion of noise made by a number of line instruments at work, 
requires much practice, and the beginner should lose no oppor¬ 
tunity to acquire skill in this direction. 

It is by far easier to learn to send a message than to receive 
one, and the ability of reading by sound far easier than convey¬ 
ing at the same time to paper the words ticked off by the instru¬ 
ment, hence constant and persistent practice is absolutely 
necessary to success. 

When the student finds himself capable of sending and re¬ 
ceiving promiscuous messages at the rate of thirty words, he 
may begin to look about for an office. The local peculiarities 
of doing business upon different lines are very great. When 
practicable, the student should spend several weeks in an office, 
familiarizing himself with the rules, forms, and methods of the 
line before attempting the management himself. 

Poor operators are termed “plugs.” 


TELEGRAPHY. 


33 


SECTION VIII. 

PENMANSHIP. 

A good and legible business handwriting is a valuable acquisi¬ 
tion in any occupation, but especially so with the telegraph 
operator, hence the telegraph student is earnestly advised to 
neglect no opportunity for acquiring skill in this direction. 

The Journal of the Telegraph , in speaking of pen¬ 
manship, says : In active life, good, legible business penmanship, 
based upon the business experience of modern times, is what is 
required , instead of the ornamental style of graceful and shaded 
curves which is taught by the majority of writing teachers in 
schools and “Business Colleges .” What is needed is to make the 
letters in writing of the shortest length practicable, and without 
curves where it is possible to retain the contour of letters without 
it. Hold the pen as close to the paper as possible, and make as 
little motion as possible, and never try to shade letters or to 
make graceful and ornamental curves. Write all capital letters 
very plain and all numerical figures distinctly, and write all proper 
names and abbreviations distinctly and carefully. This is be¬ 
cause there is generally no means of ascertaining them by the 
sense. You are insured of rapidity, and it may be said general 
gracefulness when you make letters in the shortest and easiest 
way possible, as above suggested; this, with the proper names and 
figures distinct, will render such writing easily read. The usual 
indistinctness of numerical figures in writing has led telegraph 
companies to require all numbers to be spelled out both in 
receiving and sending messages, to avoid frequent errors in them. 
Punctuation is also important as well as the use of capital letters, 
to aid in ascertaining the sense of words. Ornamental penman¬ 
ship is as much out of place in a telegraph message as it would 
be to waltz to your place of business instead of directly stepping 


34 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


there. Business penmanship is not as much taught in schools 
and colleges as it ought to be, and hence a person must be his 
own teacher in a great measure, and learn by experience and 
observation the manner and style which is the easiest and best for 
himself to insure the most rapid and readable hand, and not be 
guided by mere imitation, as is characteristically the case in 
ornamental penmanship. Nearly all telegraph operators are 
required to be able to write from twenty to thirty words a minute, 
and a few have even been able to write fifty short words a minute 
so it could be read without being copied over by the receiving 
operator. In large business centres the copying over of a tele¬ 
graph message is not expected or generally allowed. 

Our closing advice is, let your letters be made plain, well 
defined and brief, without curves and flourishes, and it will be a 
blessing and not a curse to all who have to do anything with it. 
As further reliable authority on the subject we herewith present 
the following instructive extract from an article entitled: Bad 
Writing—Its Cause , Effect and Correction —Prepared for The 
Penman's Journal by the well-known artist, penman and expert, 
Mr D. T. Ames, of New York, and subsequently published in 
the Jour?ial of the Telegraph, in the hope that it would prove 
useful and instructive to many telegraphers, and aid in protect¬ 
ing the celegraph service against that fruitful source of errors 
which are charged to the telegraph—careless and illegible hand¬ 
writing. 

With the view of placing before the readers of this journal 
some reliable facts and statistics upon this point, we have lately 
visited several important and extensive establishments, and 
gathered such practical and valuable information as we were 
able bearing upon our subject, which, added to facts within our 
own somewhat extensive experience and observation during up¬ 
ward of thirty years as teacher, author, and publisher of pen¬ 
manship, we here present, thus setting forth many of the most 
frequent and fruitful sources of bad writing and its results, fol- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


35 


lowed by several suggestions as to the manner in which they 
may be avoided and corrected. 

One most observable fact is, that illegible rind essentially bad 
writing is far from being confined to ignorant and unskillful 
writers, as we have frequently met with skillfully executed and 
highly artistic writing which was, in the words of Sheridan, 
‘curst hard reading." 

It is safe to say that a very large proportion of errors in 
writing come from sheer carelessness on the part of the writers, 
which is manifest in the awkward, nondescript or uncertain 
forms which are employed—forms, often most easy and grace¬ 
ful, but which, taken separately, represent no intelligible charac¬ 
ter, and, apart from the context, are liable to be mistaken for 
any one of several letters that are similar in their construction. 
This fault is specially grievous where it occurs as an initial letter, 
in short names, abbreviations and cipher-writing, as in such 
cases a context furnishes the reader little or no aid. 

Another prolific source of annoyance and not infrequently 
illegibility, arises from the inexcusable use of flourishes and 
superfluous lines; we say inexcusable , because at best, they mix 
and confuse the writing, and, when hurriedly and carelessly 
made, they frequently take forms which are liable to be mis¬ 
taken, by the reader, for letters or parts of letters, and thereby 
puzzle and annoy, if not entirely change the intent of the 
writer. Another frequent fault is the personal eccentricity which 
leads a writer to adopt as their style , forms for letters, and espec¬ 
ially capitals and in autographs, which are entirely outside the 
pale of any known system of writing, and whose identity can 
only be guessed at by those familiar with their style. 

Probably no organization in the world, during some years 
past, has had a more extensive experience with handwriting than 
the Western Union Telegraph Company, or one that has ex¬ 
perienced more forcibly the need of good writing, employing as 
it does nearly 20,000 operators, who transmit annually over 


36 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


35,000,000 messages, each of which is required to be twice 
written and read, making annually over 70,000,000 different 
pieces of manuscript, for a correct disposition of which the 
company is responsible. We lately visited, at the Central office, 
the general operating department, which is a spacious and com¬ 
modious hall occupying an entire floor of the company’s mag¬ 
nificent building on the corner of Broadway and Dey street. In 
this department are constantly employed over 400 operators, 
who receive and transmit daily an iiiwiense nu??iber of messages; 
each message having to be twice written. 

It is not to be supposed that all this is done without many 
annoying mistakes, resulting often in controversy, and, some¬ 
times in costly litigations, to say nothing of the loss of time and 
petty annoyance in the deciphering of doubtful or unintelligible 
writing. Such being the fact, it is to be supposed that, as a 
matter of necessity, every practicable means would be used to 
reduce this annoyance and loss to the lowest minimum possible 
by seeking the sources of and prescribing a remedy for, bad 
writing. We made the object of our visit known to one of the 
managers of this department and solicited the benefit of his ex¬ 
perience respecting the sources of bad writing, and the most 
effective means he -had discovered for its prevention. He re¬ 
plied that first of all every candidate for a position as an oper¬ 
ator must write a good, legible hand, before securing an appoint¬ 
ment in the department; and that he was then provided with 
certain rules which he was requested to observe in all his writ 
ing. These rules were a summary of m-any years’ observation 
and experience in practical telegraph work, They may, 
therefore, be said to be the outgrowth of the necessity, and an 
embodiment of the unparalleled experience of a great corpora¬ 
tion, all of whose vast operations are singularly dependent upon 
the accuracy and celerity of handwriting. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


37 


RULES TO BE OBSERVED IN PENMANSHIP. 

Rule First. —All unnecessary, superfluous or flourished lines 
must be omitted. 

Rule Second. —No capital letters or words should be joined 
together. 

Rule Third. —Capital letters should not be joined to the 
smaller letters. 

Rule Fourth. —The capital T should never be looped at the 
top, as for instance Seventy is liable to be taken for Twenty and 
vice versa. 

Several expensive litigations have grown out of the delivery 
of the latter combination, as Seventy when it was written for 
Twenty, or vice versa , by the sender of the dispatch. 

Rule Fifth. —A capital H should never be so made as to be 
mistaken for an A or other combination. 

Rule Sixth. —Cross all t’s with a single horizontal line at the 
top. 

Rule Seventh. —The capital I should always be made above the 
line, while the J should extend below. Otherwise, when used 
as initials or in cipher writing they cannot be distinguished with 
certainty. 

Rule Eighth. —The small s should never be made with the loop 
below the line, as it is liable to be mistaken for a p or f. 

Rule Ninth. —The letter Q should not be made the same as 
the figure 2. This is liable to become troublesome in cipher or 
code writing. Where letters and figures are used arbitrarily and 
separate, the proper distinction may be made by commencing 
the figure with a dot or very small oval, or as suggested by Mr. 
Downer, the Q may be made after the fashion of the Roman 
capital letter, thus, Q. 

To the above rules we would add— 

Rule Tenth. —No letter should have a doubtful form, such as 
may be mistaken for one of several letters. 



38 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Rule Eleventh .—Letters should be connected in their parts, and 
with other letters, by the proper and characteristic curved or 
straight lines. It is a very common and grievous fault in writ¬ 
ing that a straight line or the wrong curve is employed in the 
construction and connection of letters, thus leaving them with¬ 
out distinctive character, or imparting one which is false and 
misleading. 

In cases where the context does not determine, its identity 
becomes a mere matter of guess, and when extended, is still 
more vague and uncertain. With a properly trained hand no 
more time or effort is required to impart the true and unmistak¬ 
able characteristics to each letter than to make forms whose 
identity is open to doubt and conjecture. 

Rule Twelfth .—All eccentric forms and conspicuous personal 
oddities, which so often render writing, especially autographs, 
illegible, should be avoided. 

Such outlandish and meaningless scrawls are simply a nuisance, 
and are discreditable to their authors, who, however, often seem 
to be under a delusion that their idiocy is a mark of genius. 
And yet persons who send such writing to telegraph offices for 
transmission are loudest in censure of the poor operators if an 
error is made. 

Rule Thirteenth .—Adopt as a standard one plain, simple form 
for each letter, capitals and small, of the alphabet, and persist¬ 
ently make that form and no other. 

It is an obvious fact that most—and especially young—writers 
vacillate between from two to six different forms of the capitals, 
and as many as are possible in the small letters, apparently in 
the belief that variety is the chief element of good writing, which 
is a double mistake, as it detracts from the good appearance of 
the writing at the same time that it enhances the difficulty 
of learning and of executing it. Between many systems and 
multitudinous forms of letters a writer must fail of becoming 
expert and skillfuL He has too much to learn it well, and, like 


TELEGRAPHY. 


39 


“ jack of many trades,” must fail. The ease and rapidity with 
which writing can be executed, depends largely upon the simpli¬ 
city of the forms of letters used and the size of the writing. A 
medium or small hand is written with much more ease and rapid¬ 
ity than a large hand, from the fact that the pen can be carried 
over short spaces in less time and with greater ease than over 
long ones, and can execute simple forms more easily and rapidly 
than complicated ones. It is a somewhat prevalent idea that 
good writing is a “ special giftthis idea is not only fallacious 
but is exceedingly pernicious, inasmuch as it tends to discourage 
bad writers by leading them to believe that not having “ the gift” 
they are debarred from becoming good writers. Good writing is 
no more a gift than good reading, spelling, grammar, or any 
other attainment, and in the same way it is, and can be, acquired, 
■viz., by patient and studious effort. Writing is no less a subject 
for study and thought than any other branch of education. The 
correct form and construction of writing must be learned by 
study, while practice must give the manual dexterity for its easy 
and graceful execution. The hand can never excel the concep¬ 
tion of the mind that educates and directs its action. 


SECTION IX. 

THE REQUISITES FOR A FIRST-CLASS OPERATOR. 

Very few who contemplate becoming practical telegraph oper¬ 
ators have any idea of the proper qualifications necessary to 
make a capable operator. The popular idea seems to be, that 
to learn the telegraphic alphabet and be able to transmit and 
receive a specified number of words per minute constitutes a 
standard of excellence and is all that is necessary. To be sure, 
a proper knowledge of the alphabet and a thorough knowledge of 
the Morse system is of the first importance , but a good operator 



40 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


can hardly be gauged by the number of words he sends or re¬ 
ceives. Speed, when combined with other qualifications is cer¬ 
tainly a very desirable accomplishment, but we desire to impress 
upon the minds of beginners that it is not the first requisite of 
telegraphic skill—it is the steady gait and sound judgment that 
tells. However, on a pure question of manipulation an opera¬ 
tor who could sit down at any time and always calculate upon 
disposing of from two thousand to two thousand four hundred 
words an hour, send or receive, making every letter unmistakably 
legible, might be classed strictly first-class. 

To constitute a really first-class operator, however, much more 
is required than the mere facility of sending and receiving tele¬ 
graphic signals. The telegraph needs thorough men and women 
not specialists. 

To become an expert operator, that is a valuable one to the 
company, requires the possession of many qualities. In order 
to be properly qualified “to discharge intelligently and advan¬ 
tageously the duties which are likely to devolve upon one 
assigned to a position of responsibility in the telegraphic service^ 
the first requirement should be a fair general education. Plain 
and legible penmanship should be required always, and no one 
who cannot write plainly—not necessarily elegantly—should be 
allowed to receive telegraph messages for delivery.” A good 
moral character: that is, a character that would be esteemed 
-upright and honorable by the general public, is also required. 
No situation can be held long where reliance cannot be placed 
upon the operator, and telegraphy is more exacting than most 
any other business or calling. Physical qualifications are also 
necessary; the general health must be good, the hearing and 
sight without fault, the hands capable of quick action, steady 
nerves, self-confidence, a good memory, and some degree of 
precision and rapidity in natural movements. The mastery of 
rules and forms, skill in reading from poor manuscript, and much 
general knowledge of business, names, customs, geography, etc. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


41 


The ability to transmit correctly at a rapid rate with one hand, 
while timing with the other the messages sent, skill in adjusting 
instruments to every variation in the current, particularly in bad 
weather or on a faulty line.—“ In sending, the exercise of judg¬ 
ment in gauging the writing to the ability of the receiver, and 
the peculiar telegraphic sense to instantly detect an error, even 
in a cipher message, to never break except when in doubt as to 
the correctness of a word, and then ahvays break. The exer¬ 
cise of good manners on the line, and to be always on time, and 
diligent.” Besides this, “ every telegraph operator should make it 
his business to acquire a knowledge of the elementary principles 
of electrical science, upon which the telegraphic art is based- 
There are certain elementary principles of electrical science 
which are intimately associated with telegraphy, a knowledge of 
which should be acquired by all who aspire to recognition and 
position as telegraphers ; these are the conductivity and resist¬ 
ance of wires, instruments, batteries, etc., and a general knowl¬ 
edge of connections of batteries, instruments, and lines, so as 
to be able to make the necessary connections intelligently.” 

It is to be regretted that up to the present time there has been 
in telegraphy no really recognized standard of efficiency or 
proper classification of positions, although it would seem to 
systematize and regulate the classification of operators, positions, 
compensation, and promotion, would prove advantageous to 
both employers and employed as well as the general public. 


Most operators commence their career upon railroad lines, 
or in a branch office in a city, and more fail in the first at¬ 
tempt from lack of confidence , and from not comprehending the 
responsibilities and duties, than from incapacity to telegraph. 
The young operator should understand what his office hours are, 
and never be absent in them. If called upon for extra service, 
be careful not to leave till dismissed by the officer in charge.. 



42 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Never allow a message to remain undelivered in the office, or a 
message to hang unsent on the hooks. 

Handle all business accurately, but especially train messages, 
which involve life and property. Never deliver a train order till 
it has been repeated to the train dispatcher, and he has sent the 
“all right” in reply. 

Never assume the responsibility of another without instruc¬ 
tions to do so. 

Be pleasant and polite to all with whom you have business, 
on the line and in the office. 

It is easy to learn and to keep the reputation of being prompt 
and efficient. 

The first situation is sometimes difficult to secure, but once 
employed, a good operator is seldom out of work. Keep your 
office, books, and papers neat and in order. Enter your busi¬ 
ness daily, and make all reports to the railroad and telegraph 
company when required. 

Telegraphing is the road to many excellent situations in rail¬ 
road, express, and business circles. 


SECTION X. 

SCIENCE IN TELEGRAPHY. 

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. , 

As the results of observation and study of electric science , 
the electric telegraph has its origin. Yet it is not to be expected 
that even a considerable portion of those engaged in practical 
telegraphy should be expert electricians, but it is desirable that 
they should acquire and learn the rudiments at least of the 
science upon which their profession is based. However, over¬ 
crowded the lower walks of the profession may become, there is 
ahvays a deficiency in the number of those who are properly 



TELEGRAPHY. 


43 


qualified to fill the higher positions of honor in the telegraphic 
service, as circuit managers and the positions which require 
something more than the ability which is popularly supposed to 
suffice as mere mechanical manipulators and readers of tele¬ 
graphic signals. 

“That there is a general sentiment among telegraphers that 
only a superfical knowledge of the art is necessary, is well known. 
They aspire to nothing more in this direction than will suffice to 
enable them to transmit and receive messages, and draw such 
salary as may be accorded to them by their employers for their 
services. Anything beyond this they consider superfluous, and 
many rather pride themselves than otherwise upon the paucity 
of their acquirements. They regard any attempt to teach them 
more as absurd and undesirable, and are disposed to sneer at 
their fellows, who, with ambitious appreciation of what is required 
to become really proficient in their business, seek to acquire the 
knowledge which will qualify them for the proper and intelligent 
discharge of their duties.” 

New adaptations of the telegraph to popular service are con¬ 
stantly being made; the progress of electrical invention is one 
demanded by the age, and is rapidly being developed. It is 
from the intelligent and ambitious class of employes that the 
offices of honor and profit in the telegraphic service of the future 
must mainly be filled; besides this the rapid development of 
electrical science is creating a great demand for skilled electri¬ 
cians in other fields. Electrical engineering may now be properly 
termed as one of the important professions of the age. The late 
electrical exhibition in Paris has revealed the marvelous results 
already attained by science, and its practical applications are 
already established in the system of cables, electrical railways, 
electric lights, the telephone, and other recent inventions of 
electrical appliances, and yet the possibilities of electricity are 
believed to be but slightly invaded. What the future may wit¬ 
ness in electrical development, it is impossible to foresee. 


44 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


The time, it would seem, will ultimately come when steam and 
horse railways and postal communication shall be entirely super¬ 
seded by electrical appliances for traveling, and for all manner of 
correspondence. In view of these considerations it should be 
the aim of every ambitious operator to become thoroughly con¬ 
versant with the elementary principles and the applications 
thereof of electrical science, especially that which is in¬ 
timately associated with telegraphy. “ In order to obtain 
any considerable proficiency in electrical studies, a thorough 
acquaintance with arithmetic, especially decimals, percent¬ 
age, and evolution, and algebra, at least as far as quad¬ 
ratics, is almost indispensable. The latter study is now 
taught in nearly all the public schools, and so much of it as is 
necessary for ordinary purposes may be acquired with very little 
difficulty. It is a most invaluable aid in scientific calculations, 
and indeed without some knowledge of it, most of the text¬ 
books will be found of little use to the student.” 

After becoming thoroughly familiar with the subject matter 
treated of in this work , for more complete text-books on the 
special subject of electricity, and the many branches of tele¬ 
graphic and electrical science and engineering, we recommend 
the following: Prof. Tyndall’s Lessons in Electricity ; “Jenkins’ 
Electricity and Magnetism ; Preese and Sivewright’s Telegraphy; 
Prescott’s Electricity and the Electric Telegraph , and Sprague’s 
Electricity; Theory , Sources , and Applications; which may be 
taken up advantageously about in the order named. Preese and 
Sivewright’s work is English, and of course much that is said 
about special telegraphic systems is inapplicable here, but general 
principles are well explained. Prescott’s work is very complete, 
covering the whole subject to the present time, and will be of the 
utmost service, especially to those who are tolerably familiar with 
the general subject. Sprague's and Jenkins' works should be as 
thoroughly mastered as possible. They are both excellent works, 
and may be profitably studied by all telegraphers.” 


TELEGRAPHY. 


45 


However, “to become a good electrician, in the ordinary ac¬ 
ceptation of the term, requires deeper study and application. 
The works above mentioned would be good ones to commence 
with, and when these are mastered, others more abstruse will be 
naturally suggested to the student. Personal investigation and 
experiment will supplement the instruction derived from books. 
In electrical science there is always plenty of new discoveries to 
be made to maintain the interest of the student and investigator. 
There is always something new to be learned; and this, to the 
industrious and studious mind, makes it a very fascinating and 
absorbing subject. Operators should, however, carefully dis¬ 
tinguish in their minds between what is requisite to become a 
good, capable telegrapher and the more abstruse scientific educa¬ 
tion which is necessary to become a good electrician.” 

Those who become adepts in electrical science, must devote 
years of earnest study thereto, and it is not to be expected that 
the number of such will ever become very large. But this field 
would seem by the nature of things, to properly belong—by 
first right, to the practical telegrapher, who is sufficiently ambi¬ 
tious and energetic to embrace the opportunity. 


46 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


PART SECOND. 


6L6(£TRI(£ITY. 


“ Electricity can have no rival. Steam may be superseded, 
but electricity is the great natural agent, and all inventions and 
improvements can only increase its usefulness and its applica¬ 
tions. As a means of communication at a distance, it must 
ever remain the most wonderful and the most satisfactory.” 


SECTION XI. 

ELECTRICITY IN GENERAL. 

To what does the telegraph chiefly owe its efficiency ? —To a 
natural agent called electricity, a name derived from the 
Greek word signifying amber , the body on which it was first ob¬ 
served, when rubbed upon fur, wool, or silk, acquiring the 
property of attracting light objects. 

What can you say of this agent ? —Its character is not well 
understood. Whatever it may be, it is supposed to pervade all 
nature. Until quite recently it was considered a subtile fluid, 
but at the present day eminent physicists regard it not as a fluid, 
but as a dual, polar force or energy. 

We speak of the flow of the electric current for convenience, but as a mat¬ 
ter of fact there is no such thing properly speaking as a flow of electricity. The 
electric current is the result of disturbed electrical equilibrium, and the direction 





TELEGRAPHY. 


47 


of motion in this case is as much one way as the other. The student must not 
be misled, therefore, by the employment of terms which seem to recognize the 
existence of electrical fluids, as such terms have lost their significance, and are 
used merely as conveniences, until the nature of electrical force can be more 
fully developed and a consistent nomenclature adopted. 

When was this force discovered ? —The force of electricity was 
known 600 years before Christ, but no advance was made in 
the science for 1,600 years. 

What is known of this force l —Simply that an effect travels 
with inconceivable rapidity and seemingly in both directions— 
and always exists in two forms opposite to each other, called 
positive and negative, and is supposed to be nearly related to 
heat, and transmitted like heat , in a metallic bar, which is hot at 
one end, and cold at the other. 

What are the properties of electricity ?—In its natural, unex¬ 
cited state, electricity does not exhibit its properties, because in 
that state it makes no manifestations of itself whatever. 

(Unless, indeed, the universal phenomena of attraction and 
repulsion in their various forms be regarded as springing from 
this all pervading agent.) 

When excited , it possesses the power of attraction and re¬ 
pulsion. 

In motion through living animal bodies , it occasions a con¬ 
traction of muscles, accompanied by a peculiar sensation. 

Under certain circumstances it emits light, and causes percepti¬ 
ble changes of temperature. 

Some, however, maintain that the light it exhibits is caused by 
the agitation which it produces in the air, and that hence the 
emission of light is not a property of electricity. 

It resembles heat in having no weight; but differs from it in 
not producing expansion in material substances. 

It also has a powerful effect in exciting chemical action. 

How is electricity developedi —Chiefly in two ways : by friction 
and by chemical action. It is also developed by several methods 


4 8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


of induction and by heat, by magnetism, and by compression, 
and, in fact, by almost every motion which occurs upon the face 
of the earth. Electricity neither increases nor diminishes the 
weight of bodies under its influence ; neither does it affect their 
bulk. 

What two kinds of opposite electricity are there ? —Vitreous or 
positive, and resinous or negative. In a natural state, these two 
kinds always seem to be intermingled, thus neutralizing each 
other. 

It must be understood at the outset that the electricities 
termed respectively positive and negative, do not sustain to each 
other the relation implied in those terms. That which is de¬ 
nominated negative is a positive or actual power as really as the 
other. “The phenomena of positive and negative electricity may 
be rudely illustrated by those of elasticity as exhibited by an 
ordinary spring. Let the spring in its unstretched state repre¬ 
sent a body in its unelectrified condition, in which case it mani¬ 
fests none of the peculiar power which it possesses. It is im¬ 
possible to stretch the spring from one extremity only; but if 
fixed at one end, a weight being attached to the other end, it 
will seem to be stretched by one force only. In reality, how¬ 
ever, this is not the case, as may be shown by substituting a 
weight for the fixed point to which the spring is attached, equal 
in amount to the weight attached to the other end of the spring. 
The strain upon the spring remains unaltered, but a reaction 
equal in amount to the action of the original weight, is instantly 
rendered evident. So it is with electricity. It is sometimes the 
case that but one kind of electricity seems to be present; but a 
careful examination will always reveal an equal amount of the 
opposite kind.” 


What is the algebraic sign applied to positive a?id ?iegative 
electricity ? —The sign + for positive, and — for negative. 





TELEGRAPHY. 


49 


State the law of electrical attraction and repulsion. —Like kinds 
repel and unlike kinds attract each other. 

What is the effect of separating the opposite kinds of electricity ? 
—It destroys • the electrical balance or equilibrium; and the 
separated electricities constantly attract each other, and tend to 
unite again. 

When is a body said to be electrically excited or electrified ?— 

When its positive and negative electricities are separated from 
each other. 

In causing this separation no new electricity is or can be pro¬ 
duced. 

How is electricity otherwise divided ? —Into six kinds. 

ist. Frictional or static. 

2d. Chemical, galvanic, or voltaic. 

3d. Magneto-electricity, or magnetism. 

4th. Thermo-electricity. 

5th. Atmospheric electricity. 

6th. Animal electricity. 

In what respects do these several kinds differ ?—They are sup¬ 
posed to differ, not primarily in their nature, but in their mani¬ 
festations or modes of action only. 

How is electricity manifested ? —In its effects solely ; and these 
are seen only when it is excited, that is, when it moves or tends 
to move. It may be excited in all substances, may be com¬ 
municated from one electrified or excited body to another pre¬ 
viously in a neutral or unelectrified condition, and it may be 
stored up, in certain instances for practical, as well as for ex¬ 
perimental purposes. 

What general principle may be observed in regard to the direc¬ 
tion of electricity in motion ?—The positive and negative ele¬ 
ments always seem to move simultaneously, and in opposite 
directions. 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


50 

At what rate does it ?nove ?—Its rate varies in different con¬ 
ductors, and according to circumstances, but in the best it ap¬ 
proaches or perhaps exceeds the speed of light, viz., 192,000 
miles per second. The first signal is felt in the Atlantic cable 
in four-tenths of a second, but the following ones go through 
more rapidly. 


SECTION XII. 

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 

What is frictional electricity ? —It is that form of electricity 
which is generated by friction. 

Upon what substances is it excited l —Upon non-conductors; 
generally upon glass or sealing wax. 

May not electricity be excited by friction upon the surface of con¬ 
ductors ?—It may ; but in that case it is instantly conducted 
away, and hence cannot be accumulated. 

What is the office of friction in exciting electricity ?—It is simply 
to separate mechanically or otherwise, the positive and negative 
elements previously existing in the substances employed. 

Mention a simple experiment illustrative of frictional electricity . 
—If a piece of dry glass, amber, or sealing wax be briskly rub¬ 
bed with woolen cloth, it will exhibit electrical effects. Small 
fragments of paper, cotton, or other light substances, will be 
attracted to the excited surface, charged with electricity and 
then repelled. 

The experiment may easily be so varied as to illustrate many 
of the properties of the agent in question. 

What instrument may be employed to shoiu the presence and 
character af electricity ?—The electroscope. 

What is an electroscope l —There are several forms. The 
following may be readily made or procured by the student: 



TELEGRAPHY. 


51 


The Pendulum Electroscope consists of a small ball of 
dry elder pith, which is suspended from a support by a fine silk 
thread, in such a manner that it is perfectly free to move in any 
direction. A glass rod, supported by a base of dry wood and 
bent at right angles at the top is probably the best support. 

The Gold-Leaf Electroscope consists of two narrow strips 
of gold-leaf, suspended in a glass iar from a metallic rod, which 
passes through the wooden stopper of the jar, and is termina¬ 
ted with a metallic ball. The jar is open at the bottom and is 
cemented to a metellic base, from which two strips of tin-foil 
extend to points opposite the gold leaves. If an electrified 
body be brought near the ball, the gold leaves separate, or, if 
previously separated, collapse, or separate more, according to 
circumstances. Two silk ribbons may also be used as an elec¬ 
troscope. 

With the electroscope many experiments may be performed, 
showing the fundamental phenomena and character of electricity 
as developed by friction. 

What apparatus is employed in generating electricity for large 
‘experiments ?—The electrical machine, and the electro-static in¬ 
duction coils of Ritchie and Ruhmkorff, producing powerful 
electro-static effects, and great electro-motive force, by induc¬ 
tion, from a battery of small electro-motive force. 

What contrivance is employed for retaining charges of elec¬ 
tricity ?—The Leyden jar, so called from the name of the place 
where invented. 

What properties of electricity may he exhibited by experiments 
with these apparatus and battery ?—Its power of attraction and 
repulsion, induction and emission of sparks and light, its varied 
capacity for transmission over different substances, its power to 
give shocks, etc., etc. 


52 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XIII. 

CONDUCTORS,' INSULATORS, INDUCTION. 

When is a body said to conduct electricity ?—When an elec¬ 
trical discharge passes over or through it. 

“According to the views of the great mass of eminent electricians, both in 
Europe and America, conduction of electricity of whatever name is through 
the mass of the conductor and not by surface action such as is exhibited in the 
statical condition of electricity.” 

Do all bodies possess equal conducting power l —No, the con¬ 
ducting power of different substances varies in almost every pos¬ 
sible degree, from the highest to the very lowest. 

Are there any substances which will not conduct at all ?— 

Probably not. 

Explain the terms conductor and non-conductor. —Those bodies 
are commonly called conductors which conduct readily, and 
those non-conductors which conduct slowly;. though strictly 
speaking, all bodies are conductors, and there are no non-con¬ 
ductors. 

Plante the most common and best conductors. —Metals, water, 
charcoal, and animal bodies ; but these differ much among them¬ 
selves. Of metals, silver, copper, and gold are the best; the 
two former conducting about five times as well as iron or 
platinum. 

Mention the most common non-conductors .—Glass, sulphur, 
resin, ice, silk, dry air, dry wood, varnish, porcelain, etc. 

Any of these substances, however, will conduct electricity 
under certain conditions, or when covered with moisture, (or 
reduced to a powder), though, in that case, it is strictly the 
moisture that conducts, rather than the non conducting sub¬ 
stance. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


S3 


What is insulation ?—The separation of a body from sur¬ 
rounding objects in such a manner that it can neither receive 
nor impart electricity. 

How is a body insulated ? —By being supported and surround¬ 
ed by non-conductors. 

What is the ??iost common insulator l —The atmospheric air. 

What is induction ? —It is the power which an electrified 
body has to develop electricity in a body not electrified, when 
the bodies in question are brought near together, but not suf¬ 
ficiently near for electricity to pass from one to the other. 

How is induction accomplished ? —By the power of attraction 
and repulsion, separating the electricities of the unexcited body 
according to the universal law, viz., likes repel and unlikes at¬ 
tract each other. 

Professor Faraday’s theory of induction conceives electrical induction to de¬ 
pend on a physical action between contiguous particles, which does not take 
place at a distance without operating through the particles of intervening non¬ 
conductors. A separation of the opposite electrical forces takes place in these 
intermediate particles, and they become disposed in an alternate series of posi¬ 
tive and negative poles; this he termed a polarization of the particles, and in 
this way he supposed, a force to be transferred to a distance. He also assumed 
thata// viaterial particles are conductors to a greater or less extent; that in 
their unexcited state they are not arranged in a polarized form, but become so 
arranged by the influence of charged particles, in their immediate vicinity, when 
they assume a forced state, and tend to return by a powerful tension to their 
original position ; that being more or /^conductors the particles become charged 
either bodily or by polarity; and that contiguous particles can communicate their 
influence more or less readily. When less readily, the polarized state is en¬ 
hanced, and a more or less perfect insulatio?i results; when more readily, con¬ 
duction takes place. 

What takes place when the bodies causing and receivuig induc¬ 
tion are. removed from each other’s influence ?—The latter usually 
returns to its original, unexcited state. If, however, it be un¬ 
insulated before induction takes place, but insulated during the 
continuance of the same, it will remain electrified even after the 
source of induction is removed. 


54 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XIV. 

TECHNICAL TERMS—ELECTRICAL UNITS. 

What is the meaning of the ter?n “circuit”? —The wires, 
instruments, etc., forming the path for the passage of the current. 

What is meant by “derived circuit” ?■ —When part of a cir¬ 
cuit is divided into several parallel branches, each is called a 
derived circuit. 

What is the meaning of “metallic circuit” ? —A circuit in 
which a return wire is used instead of the earth—as when two 
wires are looped. 

What is the meaning of the term “current” ? —The supposed 
passage of electricity, or transfer of electrical force, not as a fluid 
or gas, but progressive in its nature, like the passage of light 
through space, or of heat through a bar of metal. 

What is the meaning of the term “potential” ? —A term used 
to indicate a condition for, or tendency to do work, and is ap¬ 
plied to electricity in the same way that the word pressure is 
used with reference to a fluid. 

What is meant by difference of potential ? —Difference of 
potential is a difference of electrical condition in virtue of which 
work is done by positive electricity in moving from the point at 
a higher potential to that at a lower potential, and it is measured 
by the amount of work done by the unit quantity of positive 
electricity when thus transferred. The idea of potential essenti¬ 
ally involves a relative condition of two points, so that no one 
point or body can be said to have an absolute potential. The 
potential of a body is the difference of its potential from that of 
the earth, which is assumed to be at zero. Difference of potential 
for electricity is analogous to difference of level for water. 
— -Jenkins. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


£5 


What is the meaning oj “ electro-motive force”? —The force 
which develops electric tension or potential, energy, the power 
of overcoming resistance, and is to the current what pressure is 
to steam. 

The words electro-motive force and difference of potential are used frequently 
one for the other, but they are not strictly speaking identical. Electro-motive 
force is the more general term of the two, and includes difference of potential 
as one of its forms.— Jenkins. 

What is meant by “ resistance ” ?—The opposition presented 
by the circuit to the passage of the current, and is the opposite 
of its conducting power, and the property of every substance, 
varying only in degree, however the obstruction and facility to 
the passage of the current through a circuit are similiarly ap¬ 
plied by the term resistance. 

What is meant by joint resistance ?—The resistances of two 
or more circuits considered as one. 

UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT. 

In order to measure anything we must first provide ourselves 
with suitable known standards or units of measurement, with 
which the unknown quantities may be compared. Thus, in 
measure of space, we have the inch; in measure of time the 
second; and in measure of force or weight, the pound. 

What is an ohm ?—The unit of resistance, also called the B, 
A unit. 

How did the name originate ?—So called in honor of Dr. G. 
S. Ohm, a distinguished German mathematician, of Nuremberg, 
Germany, who was the first to discover and lay down the true 
laws of electrical action. 

What is the resistance represented by an ohm ?—It is equal to 
the resistance of a round wire of pure copper sixty-five one 
thousandths of an inch in diameter, and 408 feet 4 inches in 
length, at a temperature of 6o° Fahrenheit. This is the size 
generally known as No. 16 wire, Birmingham gauge, ordinary of- 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


56 

fice wire. Roughly it is equivalent to the resistance of 330 feet 
of ordinary No. 9 galvanized wire, such as that used in the con¬ 
struction of telegraph lines. It will therefore be understood that 
the ohm is a unit of resistance in the same manner that an inch 
is a unit of length, or a pound a unit of weight. 

What ?nay be stated as the essential properties of an electric cir¬ 
cuits —The essential properties of an electric circuit may be said 
to be, first, the electro-motive force included or contained in it; 
second, its resistance to the passage of the current; and third, 
the magnitude of the current so passing. When any two of 
these three properties have a known value, the value of the 
third may readily be ascertained. 

How may the third be ascertained, when any two have a known 
value ? —This is done by means of Ohm's law , upon which all 
electrical measurements are founded—the importance of which 
is only equalled by its simplicity 

The following statement and demonstration of Ohm's law is from an article 
on the “Elementary Principles of Electrical Measurement,” written by Mr. F. 
L. Pope, and published originally in The Telegrapher. He says : From the 
fact that Ohm’s law is expressed in most books by algebraic formulae, students 
are apt to be very much afraid of it, but there need really be no difficulty in 
understanding it. Unless he does understand it, the student can make but lit¬ 
tle progress towards a thorough knowledge of the phenomena of the electric 
current. 

What is Ohm's law ? 

1. The current in any circuit is found by dividing its electro¬ 
motive force by its resistance. 

2. The resistance in any circuit is found by dividing its 
electro-motive force by its current. 

3. The electro-motive force in any circuit is found by multi¬ 
plying its resistance by its current. 

4. The quantity of electricity produced in any circuit is 
found by multiplying the current by the time during which it 
flows. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


57 


How is Ohm's law expressed by algebraic formula l —The al¬ 
gebraic formulae are nothing more than a short way of writing 
down the same answer as above, thus: 

Let Q denote the total quantity of electricity generated in 
any circuit. 

Let E denote the electro-motive force 4 n the circuit. 

Let R denote its resistance. 

Let C denote the current flowing in the circuit. 

Let T denote the time during which the current flows 

We may then write down the above statements, thus : 

E E 

(i) C = -. (2) R = -. 

R C 


(3) E = R C. (4) Q = C T. 

For the benefit of those who are not familiar with algebraic 
formulae it may be well to state that, when two letters standing 
for numerical quantities are placed one above another in the 
form of a common fraction, it signifies that the quantity above 
the line is to be divided by the quantity below the line. 

E 

Thus - signifies E divided by R. 

R 

The sign = denotes equality; or that the quantities on one 
side of the sign are equal to those on the other side. 

When two or more letters standing for numerical quantities 
are written together, one after the other, it signifies that they 
are to be multiplied together. Thus in the above case, the ex¬ 
pression E = R C means that E is equal to the products of R 
multiplied by C, or in other words that the electro-motive force 
(E) is equal to the resistance (R) multiplied by the strength of 
current (C) which is exactly what was stated above in the third 
paragraph of Ohm’s law—only in the former case it required 
78 letters to explain it, and in the latter we can express precisely 


58 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


the same thing by means of four letters and one arbitrary sign, 
which perhaps may serve to give the student some idea of the 
reason why persons who understand algebra prefer to use it 
whenever circumstances permit. 

What is the resistance represented by an ohm according to the 
British Association standard ?—It is equal to the resistance of a 
prism of pure mercury, i square millimeter section and 1.0486 
metres long, at 32 0 Fahr. 

IVhat is Siemens' unit of resistance ? —The ohm and Siemens’ 
resistance units do not differ greatly from each other. Accord¬ 
ing to the most trustworthy determination 1 ohm is equal to 
1.0486 Siemens’ units, and one Siemens’ unit is equal to .9536 
ohms. The Siemens’ unit constructed in i860 by Dr. Werner 
Siemens, of Berlin, Prussia, is defined as being equal to the re¬ 
sistance of a column of chemically pure mercury, one metre in 
length and one square millimetre in sectional area, maintained 
at a temperature of o° Centigrade or 32 0 Fa u< nheil. 

What is a volt ?—The volt, so named from the Italian philos¬ 
opher, Volta, the discoverer of the voltaic battery, is the unit 
of electro-motive force of a single Daniell, or sulphate of copper 
cell, and for many purposes may be considered equivalent to it. 
According to Mr. Farmer’s determination, the sulphate of cop¬ 
per battery used in telegraph work has an electro-motive force 
equal to 0.93 or 93-100 of a volt. Therefore, the ordinary 
Daniell cell furnishes a unit of electro-motive force of sufficient 
uniformity and constancy for ordinary purposes, and one which 
is used in this way very generally by practical electricians. Sir 
William Thomson says no human being can stand an electro¬ 
motive force equal to 250 volts. 

What is the farad ? —The farad, so called in honor of the 
English philosopher, Michael Faraday, distinguished for his 
researches and discoveries in electrical science, is the unit of 
quantity and of electro-static capacity. It is equal to the quan- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


59 


tity of electricity that will pass through a circuit having a resist¬ 
ance of i ohm during one second, with an electro-motive force 
of i volt, and is as necessary as a unit of resistance, or electro¬ 
motive force. The farad is used in determining the amount of 
charge a condenser is capable of. 

Is there a unit of conductivity ? —There is no unit of conduc¬ 
tivity. Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance. 

What is the weber ? —The weber, so named from a German 
philosopher of that name, is the unit of current. Jenkins, who 
is probably the best authority on the subject, gives one farad per 
second as the unit of current. 

What are the names and values applied to the multiples and 
sub-multiples of electrical units ? 

The megavolt, one million volts. 

“ megafarad, “ “ farads. 

“ megohm “ “ ohms. 

Similarly : 

The microvolt, one-millionth of a volt. 

“ microfarad “ “ farad. 

“ Microhm, “ “ an ohm. 

— Jenkins. 

What are the units of electrical measurement adopted by 
the International Electrical Congress held in Paris in 1882 ? 
The International Electrical Congress held in Paris decided 
to make use of the centimeter, gramme, and second in all elec¬ 
trical measurements. They will retain the practical units, ohm 
for resistance, and “volt” for electro motive force. The intensity 
of a current produced by one volt, with a resistance of one ohm, 
will be called one “ampere;” and the quantity of electricity 
given by one ampere in one second will be called a “coulomb;” 
the term “farad ” indicates the capacity of the condenser which, 
laden with a volt, holds one coulomb of electricity. The old 


6o 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


term “ weber,” as a unit of intensity of current, will not be 
used. 


SECTION XV. 

VOLTAIC ELECTRICITY AND THE MEANS OF EXCITING IT. 

As the results of observation and study, between 1780 and 
1793, Galvani , professor of anatomy in the University of 
Bologna, discovered that convulsive movements might be pro¬ 
duced in the legs of a frog recently killed, if brought into con¬ 
tact with two dissimilar metals [e. g. zinc and copper] which 
are themselves in conjunction. This discovery, seemingly insig¬ 
nificant, formed the foundation upon which to rest the splendid 
superstructure of volta-electrical science, together with its various 
practical applications. Volta , of Pavia, a pupil of Galvani, 
became interested in his master’s discovery, and devoted him¬ 
self to experimental research, which resulted in the invention of 
the voltaic pile. From this it will be seen that the term galvanic 
battery is a misnomer, for Galvani had nothing to do with its 
invention ; indeed it was not devised until after his death. 

From these simple foundations have sprung all other forms of 
galvanic or voltaic batteries, and the force which is generated by 
these batteries is termed voltaic electricity. 


What kind of electricity is employed in the telegraph ? —Voltaic, 
chemical, or galvanic electricity. 

What is voltaic electricity ? —That branch of electric science 
which treats of the electric currents being developed by chemical 
action. Especially from that attending the dissolution of metals. 

How does voltaic differ from frictional electricity ? —Voltaic 
electricity discharges itself steadily, while, frictional, on the other 
hand, acts abruptly and instantaneously. 




TELEGRAPHY. 


61 


This difference results, undoubtedly, from the manner in which art excites the 
agents in question, and not from any inherent peculiarity possessed by them. 
It is the steady movement of the voltaic current that adapts it to the purposes 
of the telegraph. 

What must be the arrangemefit of the conductors upon which 
voltaic electricity moves ?—They must be arranged in an unbroken 
series called a circuit. 

What contrivance is employed in developing voltaic electricity ?— 

The voltaic cell, or battery. 

There are many forms of battery, but we shall here be able to consider only 
two, viz: the most simple form, commonly called the simple voltaic circuit, and 
the form generally employed in main and local telegraph offices. The explana¬ 
tion of these, however, will embrace all the fundamental principles of other forms. 

What are the essential parts of a voltaic battery ?—Two dis¬ 
similar conductors and a liquid. These must be so related that 
the liquid will act chemically upon at least one of the conduct¬ 
ors, and that if it acts upon both, it will affect them differently, 

A battery may be formed by a combination of two dissimilar 
liquids with one solid conductor. 

What conductors are commonly employed ? —Metals, and among 
them copper, platinum and zinc most frequently. Recently, sol¬ 
idified carbon also is largely employed. 

State the composition of zinc .—Ordinary zinc contains carbon, 
lead, and iron, the latter partly derived from the melting pots 
when not lined with fire-clay, as they always should be. 

How is the electric force produced ?—The electric force is 
produced by the waste of one of the metals, and neither this nor 
any other force can be produced without the consumption or 
waste of something or another, otherwise we should at once 
have discovered perpetual motion, and there would be no 
necessity for mainsprings for watches nor of coals for steam 
engines, and so on. 

A battery produces electricity by the combustion of zinc as a fire produces heat 
by the combustion of coal. To obtain heat from coal, however, it is only neces¬ 
sary to light it in the presence of air, whereas to obtain electricity from zinc a 


62 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


special combination of that metal with another metal or conductor, and a liquid 
is required. The liquid must be one which has a strong chemical affinity or at¬ 
traction for zinc. 

What liquids are employed ? —Water, with sulphuric or nitric 
acid. 

Stale the chemical constitution of these substances. —Water is 
composed of one equivalent of oxygen and two of hydrogen. 

Sulphuric acid is composed of three equivalents of oxygen 
and one of sulphur. 

Nitric acid contains five equivalents of oxygen and one of 
nitrogen. 

Sulphuric acid is always combined with one equivalent of water. 

How may a simple voltaic circuit be formed l —By placing in a 
vessel of water mingled with a little sulphuric acid, a slip of 
copper and another of zinc, and making a conducting connec¬ 
tion between them. 

How ?nay this co7inedion be made ?—By bringing the metals 
into contact, or by passing a wire or other conductor from one 
metal to the other. The latter is the usual method. 

Why is this connection between the metals necessary ?—Because 
without it there is no action. 

What substajices are affected in the primary action of such a 
circuit l —The zinc and water only are affected. 

Explain the chemical actions of the battery. —As soon as the 
metals are connected, the water begins to be decomposed, and 
the zinc dissolved particle by particle. The zinc unites with the 
oxygen of the water, forming oxide of zinc, and the hydrogen 
is set free and escapes. 

What is the electrical effect of this process ?—When chemical 
action begins, the positive and negative electricities are separated 
at the surface of the zinc, and pass, one to each metal. From 
the latter, they proceed in opposite directions over the con- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


6 3 


ductor between the metals, until they reach the starting point, 
viz., the zinc surface, when they unite again. This process is 
incessantly repeated until the chemical forces of the battery are 
exhausted. Thus there are two currents of electricity constantly 
acting in opposite directions. 

The electrical forces are here spoken of as being separated and united at the 
surface of the zinc. In reality, however, this process occurs in every particle 
throughout the circuit. Still the above language may be regarded as sufficiently 
exact in view of the two considerations following : 

ist. Though electrical action takes place in every part of the circuit, yet it 
is developed or originated in the particles at the zinc surface, while other particles 
throughout the circuit simply transmit it. The former are active, the latter 
passive. The former might be called motive, the latter transmissent particles. 

2d. The expression “ a current of electricity ” denotes properly the passage, 
not of matter or substance, but of force or motion. 

What is the direction of the current ?—Although there are two 
electric currents passing simultaneously in opposite directions, 
it has been agreed to call the direction in which the positive 
electricity moves the direction of the current. However, the 
direction of a voltaic current, in any particular instance, depends 
entirely upon the nature of the chemical action which pro¬ 
duces it. 

If contact be made between a piece of pure zinc and a piece of copper, the 
whole being immersed in dilute of sulphuric acid, the course of the current 
within the liquid will be from the zinc to the copper; if strong ammonia water 
be substituted for the dilute acid, however, the course of the current will be 
reversed. 

What then is the office of the conductor between the metals in this 
and every form of battery l —It is simply to furnish the separated 
electricities a channel by which they may unite again ; or in 
other words, to restore the electrical equilibrium which the 
chemical action of the battery has destroyed. 

State the electrical relations of the metals of the circuit. —Cop¬ 
per as compared with zinc is electro negative and hence attracts 
the positive current. Zinc acts in an opposite manner. The 
name of the poles or wires leading from the battery is the oppo- 


6 4 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


site of that of the metals in the battery they lead from. Thus 
the zinc is the positive metal or element of the battery. 

Positive electricity is developed upon the surface of the more oxidizable metal 
which is acted upon by the exciting liquid, which is termed, for that reason, the 
electro-positive, or more simply, the positive metal. If this be true, negative elec¬ 
tricity must proceed from the opposite plate, that is, the one upon which the 
liquid exerts no action, and, consequently that plate is termed the electro-nega¬ 
tive or negative metal. In fact, it is possible to classify all of the elements upon 
this principle, into electro-positive and electro-negative substances. In other 
words, the various elements, when opposed to each other under certain circum¬ 
stances, assume a polarized condition. This being the case it is easy to account 
for the fact that the portion of metal which is outside of the liquid constitutes a 
pole of the battery, opposite in name to that of the plate itself. 

What then may be considered the universal rule ? —That metal 
which is affected by the primary action of the battery is electro¬ 
positive within the liquid, and hence affords a negative current. 

Which current, then, does each metal furnish to that pari of the 
circuit which is exterior to the liquid l —Copper yields a positive 
and zinc a negative current. The former is, therefore, called 
the positive and the latter the negative pole of the circuit or 
battery. 

What general principle holds true in regard to the poles of every 
voltaic battery ? —That metal which is electro-negative attracts 
the positive current in the liquid and hence is termed the posi¬ 
tive pole, and vice versa. 

May several cells like the one just described be united in one 
batteiyl —They may; and the effect thereby is greatly increased. 

What principle must be universally observed in making battery 
connections for telegraphic purposes ? —Positive poles must con¬ 
nect with negative, and negative with positive. 

Why might not a battery of simple circuit, of this description, be 
employed on telegraphic lines ? —For two reasons. 

ist. The zinc surface is quickly coated with the oxide formed 
by its combination with oxygen. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


6 5 


2d. The liberated hydrogen adheres in bubbles to the 
copper plate preventing, in a great degree, its contact with the 
water. 

By these causes, the action of the circuit is speedily inter¬ 
rupted. 

What should be the principal qualities of batteries adapted for 
telegraph purposes l —Telegraph batteries being destined to 
operate upon circuits, which are generally of great resistance, 
should combine as many as possible of the following qualities, 
and each should be as fully developed as possible. 

1. Great electro-motive force. 

2. Constancy. 

3. Be easy to clean and charge. 

4. The charge should be of long duration. 

5. Feeble interior resistance. 

6. Durability. 

7. Simplicity of construction. 

8. Low in price. 

9. Not expensive to maintain. 

Perhaps among all of these, No. 5, a feeble interior resistance, 
is to be most insisted upon, for it is well known that upon 
telegraph lines the effect of derivations is as much greater as 
the interior resistance. The first cost, No. 8, is of little 
moment, compared with No. 9, or the cost of maintenance— 
which includes the cost of materials for charging and attendant’s 
salary. 

The conditions above catalogued, it will be seen, are numer¬ 
ous and difficult to combine, and as might therefore be antici¬ 
pated, the number of batteries adapted for telegraphic purposes 
is very limited.—From La Lumere Electrique . 



66 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


THE CALLAUD OR GRAVITY BATTERY. 



Fig- 3- 


What battery is employed for telegraphic purposes ?—The grav¬ 
ity constant battery is the adopted standard form in general use 
throughout the United States, upon both main and local circuits. 
See Fig. 3. 

What is said in ge?ieral of its construction ? —It is formed upon 
the same principle as the simple voltaic circuit already described. 
It is more complicated, however, being designed to produce a 
constant and steady current. 

In what respect does it differ from the simple voltaic circuit ?— 
Chiefly in two respects, viz : 

1st. The copper and zinc are separated. The zinc sus¬ 
pended near the top and the coper placed in the bottom of the 
jar. 

2d. The sulphuric acid is supplied not in its own proper 
form, but in combination with oxygen and copper in the form of 
blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. 











































































































TELEGRAPHY. 67 

Of what is blue vitriol composed l —Of sulphuric acid and oxide 
of copper. 

What is oxide of copper l —It is a compound of oxygen and 
copper. 

What jfietals are employed in the gravity battery ? —A scroll 
form of sheet copper, and a solid wheel of zinc. 

What liquid l —Water saturated with blue vitriol. 

Explain the arrange 77 ient of this battery. —It consists of a 
glass jar about seven or eight inches high, nearly filled with soft 
water, immersed in which, at the bottom, is the scroll form 
sheet of copper having fastened to it an insulating conducting 
wire, which, passing through the liquid up the side, and out at 
the top of the jar, constitutes what is termed the copper or posi¬ 
tive pole of the battery ; around and on the copper in the bot¬ 
tom of the jar is placed about one half pound of sulphate of 
copper (blue vitriol); suspended above by means of a brass 
tripod or hanger (as it is called) is the wheel of zinc, which 
should remain beneath the surface of the liquid in the jar about 
two or three inches above the copper. The brass hanger is 
made to serve as a conductor from the zinc by means of a con¬ 
necting post and screw, and thus constitutes the negative pole 
of the battery. 

There are various methods in practice of putting up and maintaining the 
gravity battery. The plan most generally adopted is to fill the jar with sulphate 
of copper to the top of the copper frame, and with water to within an inch and 
a half of the top of the jar. Rain water should be used whenever it can be 
obtained, as hard water, or water containing lime or other substances in solution* 
impairs the strength of the battery. 

Is there a7iy other form of gravity battery l —Yes. The 
crowfoot battery. So called from the shape of the zinc. This 
form has been adopted by the Western Union Telegraph Com¬ 
pany, and gives general satisfaction as a thorough, efficient sub¬ 
stitute for every known form cf blue vitriol battery in use for 
telegraphic purposes. 


68 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Why is it preferred to all others ?—On account of its simplicity 
and cheapness, consisting as it does practically of but three parts, 
the “jar? “zincf and “copper ” The zinc being made heavier, 
and in such a shape that it is suspended by being hooked on 
the side of the jar. The zi?ic in this battery, however, cannot be 
raised or lowered. 

Does the battery begin to act its full strength when first set up l 
—No. It does not. 

What should be done to hasten its full action l —Put into the 
liquid four or five ounces of pulverized sulphate of zinc, then 
connect the copper with the zinc by fastening the wire from the 
copper into the screw post of the zinc or hanger, and leave it so 
for a few hours. 

What is this called ?—Putting the battery on a short circuit. 

What does the stre?igth of the battery depend upon ?—Greatly 
on the position in which the zinc is placed in regard to the blue 
color. 

How is the greatest effect obtained ?—By lowering the zinc to 
within half an inch of the blue color, care being taken to allow 
no contact to be made between the two. 

What should be done to render the battery ?nore const am and 
lastingl —Raise the zinc farther above the blue color; this, 
however, decreases the power, but makes the battery more con¬ 
stant and lasting. 

What can you say about the supply of blue vitriol ?—The bat¬ 
tery should be kept supplied with enough sulphate of copper, 
so that a blue color can always be seen in the liquid at the bot¬ 
tom of the jar, rising to within an inch of the lower surface of 
the zinc and not allowed to touch it. 

What does it indicate if the blue color rise too high ?—That too 
much sulphate of copper is being used, and no more should be 
put in until the blue color has receded almost to the bottom of 
the jar. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


69 


What does it indicate if the blue color recedes ? —That more 
sulphate of copper is required. 

What precaution should be observedl —Care should be taken 
that the battery circuit is not left open long enough to allow the 
blue solution to accumulate so as to attack the zinc, and that 
the latter is at all times submerged in the water. 

Why does the liquid in the battery diminish in quantity l —It is 
caused by evaporation, and more water should be added from 
time to time to replace the loss. 

Does the sulphate of zinc solution ever become too great ?—It 

does. 

What is the remedy ?—Draw off a portion of the top of the 
solution with a battery syringe or cup, and replace it with clear 
water. 

What is used to test the strength of the solution ?—A hydro¬ 
meter. When the specific gravity is less than 15 degrees there is 
too little sulphate of zinc; when it is 35 degrees or over, there is 
too much in the solution, and it must be diluted. 

How should the battery be cleaned l —Once in two or three 
months it will be necessary to thoroughly clean the battery. 
Take out the zinc and copper carefully ; pour the liquid into a 
separate jar, then throw away the dirt and loose copper in the 
bottom of the battery jar, and return the clean liquid which was 
in it before ; set the copper back in its place, and add a few 
'umps of blue vitriol; scrape and wash the zinc thoroughly, and 
return also to its place. The battery should then be in good 
working order, and should not be disturbed unless to clean or to 
add blue vitriol. 

Should the battery be allowed to freeze l —No, as the current 
would be very much impaired or altogether suspended. 

Does the battery work more vigorously while warm ?—A es, as 

heat is a promoter of chemical action. 


70 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


In the gravity battery what becomes of the zinc ? —It is dissolved 
particle by particle and combines with the oxygen of the water, 
forming oxide of zinc. 

What becomes of the oxide of zinc ? —It remains in the water 
(though not without change) until it is removed by cleaning the 
battery. It darkens the water, and if allowed to accumulate, 
finally settles in a dirty mass to the bottom of the cell. 

Some of it, at least, forms sulphate of zinc by uniting with 
the sulphuric acid after being liberated from the sulphate of 
copper. 

Is the copper affected? —It is not affected by that action which 
produces the current, but gradually increases in size by the cop¬ 
per adhering to it which is liberated from the blue vitriol. 

How is the blue vitriol acted upon ? —It is decomposed ; the 
sulphuric acid it contains is liberated in sufficient quantities to 
keep the battery in action, and its copper is set free and thrown 
down in fine particles. 

In this battery why does the sulphate of copper solution occupy 
the lower and the sulphate of zinc solution the tipper portion ?— 
On account of the difference in their specific gravity. 

Why does not hydrogen gas adhere to the copper cylinder atid re¬ 
tard the action as in the simple circuit? —Because oxygen liberat¬ 
ed from the oxide of copper in blue vitriol unites with it forming 
water. 

What is the office of the sulphuric acid in the battery ? —It is 
to excite chemical action among the other agents present, 
although it does not seem to enter into any of the process itself. 

What about the connections ? —They must be kept free from 
rust and dirt in order to allow the current to pass through them 
freely. 

Why should not like poles be connected ? —Because they would 
neutralize each other, and no current whatever be produced. 


TELEGRAPHY 


71 


Is it necessary that the circuit of a voltaic battery be insulated ? 
'—It is only necessary that one half of it be insulated from the 
other half; or more exactly, there must be such insulation as 
will prevent all cross-communication between the different parts 
of the circuit. 

May the earth be take?i as a part of the circuits —It may, pro¬ 
vided the other parts be properly insulated from the earth. 

What relation does the telegraph line sustain to the battery or 
batteries which work it ? —It is simply a part of the conductor 
between the battery poles. 

In the management of batteries what important principle must 
be constantly borne in mind ? —That a current cannot be made 
to start from one pole of a battery, unless it can pass around 
and touch the other pole, be the distance a few inches or a 
thousand miles. 

What is meant by the “internal resistance ” of a battery ?— The 
resistance offered by the liquids, and porous cell, if one is used, 
to separate the liquids. 

What is usually the resistance of each cell of the gravity battery? 
—From 2 to 4 ohms, depending upon the size of the plates, 
their distance apart, and upon the degree of saturation of the 
sulphate of zinc solution. 

The ordinary Callaud cell usually has about 3 ohms resistance. If such a 
cell were placed on “short circuit," that is, having its poles connected by a wire 
so thick as to offer no appreciable resistance, the ctfrrent traversing the circuit 
would be equal to one-third of a farad per second. One-sixtieth of a farad per 
second is sufficient to operate the relays in the main circuit of a telegraph line. 
A local circuit for actuating a sounder or register usually has a current of from 
one-fourth to one-sixth of a farad per second. 

What is meant by “ polarization of the plates? —This term is 
applied to an action which occurs whenever the current passes 
from liquid to solid conductors; there forms on the surface of 
the latter a film different from the liquid, by which there is not 
only a greater resistance introduced, but an electro-motive force 


72 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


is generated, opposing that of the current, so that if suddenly 
connected to a galvanometer, and the main circuit broken, a re¬ 
verse current will be maintained for some time.— Prescott. 

Is there any other form of battery used for telegraphic purposes? 
—Yes; various forms, the most common the Grove and carbon 
batteries for the main lines, and the Daniell for the local. 

The construction and arrangement of these batteries is not explained, as they 
are not now in general use, having been superseded by the gravity battery. 

What is mea?it by “ earth batteries "l —That of operating 
an electro-magnet by means of a battery composed of plates of 
zinc and copper buried in moist earth, known for nearly forty 
years, the discovery having been originally made by Gauss in 
Germany, in 1838. It was re-invented by Alexander Bain, and 
patented by him in England, in 1840; and in 1844, Alfred Vail 
succeeded in operating Morse’s original telegraph line from 
Washington to Baltimore, upon this plan. 

"The disadvantage of the earth battery is’that it is not possible by its means 
to obtain an electro-motive force above that of a single cell, because any number 
of pairs of plates that may be used, are in effect but one plate, for the reason 
that they are all virtually placed in a single cell. By thus burying large plates 
of zinc and copper in moist earth, a current may be obtained nearly equal to 
that of a Daniell element, which is sufficient to work an ordinary sounder with 
considerable strength. But on a line of any length, where there is resistance to 
be overcome, the effect would necessarily be very feeble. It is not strictly correct 
to say that electricity is generated by this process without the use of chemicals, 
as the action is really caused by the oxygen contained in the water of the moist 
earth uniting with and oxydizing the zinc, the action being in fact the same as 
when an acid is used, only it takes place much less rapidly. The comparative 
slowness of the action is more or less compensated by the increased size of the 
plates.” 

Has there any form of battery been perfected by which electricity 
maybe stored for future use? —Yes, a storage battery has re¬ 
cently been invented by the eminent electrician of Cleveland, 
Ohio, Mr. Charles F. Brush, the inventor of the Brush electric 
light, who claims that his system is complete in every respect, 
and a commercial as well as a scientific success; that the loss of 


TELEGRAPHY. 


73 


energy in storing and in again giving up electricity is compara¬ 
tively small, and that any required amount of electricity can be 
accumulated or stored, and afterwards used either for light, 
power, chemical action, telegraphy, or for any other purpose for 
which electricity obtained from other sources is used. 

Explain in brief the “Brush storage battery .”—“The Brush 
storage battery is simple in its construction, consisting of a 
square box containing cells, in each of which are two cast lead 
plates. The plates are electrically treated in a manner that is, 
of course, a secret, and are immersed in acidulated water. 
One of the plates is black, and is called the hydrogen plate, 
while the other is white, and is termed the oxygen plate. These 
plates are what are properly designated as the accumulators, 
and into them is stored the electricity. They are portable and 
can be packed and shipped as any other merchandise. They 
can be handled without danger, and can be made of any size 
required, so that there is no theoretical limit to the amount of 
electricity that can be stored. The capacity of a battery, of 
course, depends upon the number of cells it contains, and the 
size of the plates.” 


SECTION XVI. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY. 

What is magneto-electricity ?—That form of electricity which 
is generated by the relative movements of magnets and coils 
of wires, thus converting mechanical force into electricity. 

How is magneto-electricity generated ? —Electricity is generated 
for telegraphic and other purposes by means of magneto-electric 
machines, without the aid of chemical action. In this case we 
have a direct conversion of mechanical force into electricity 

What is the magneto-electro machinel —They are made in many 



74 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


different forms, but the best and most powerful machine consists 
of two parallel electro-magnets. A Siemens armature is placed 
at each end. They are, however, of different sizes. The 
smaller one is in circuit with the coils of the electro-magnet, 
and the larger one furnishes the working current. The two 
armatures are revolved simultaneously. The current is at first 
generated in the coils of the smaller armature by the residual 
magnetism of the electro-magnets. This armature, as it re¬ 
volves, sends the currents generated in its coils through the 
coils of the magnet. The magnetism thus increased magnifies 
the currents induced in the revolving coils, and at the same 
time develops powerful currents in the larger armature, thus 
carrying on the principle of mutual accumulation. The current 
developed in the larger armature is utilized for the purpose 
desired.— Lockwood's Notes and Queries on Electricity. 

What is the principal applicatio?i of magneto-electricity ?—Its 
application to the production of the electric light, to electro¬ 
plating, to magneto bells as telephone signals, to the telephone 
itself, in which magneto currents may be said to be involuntarily 
generated by the human voice ; and more recently its success¬ 
ful practical application to telegraphy, by dynamo-electric ma¬ 
chines designed to supply a continuous current, adapted and in 
use by the Western Union Telegraph Company at the larger 
offices. 

In the New York office of the Western Union Telegraph Com¬ 
pany, the largest telegraphic office on this continent,at least 20,000 
cells of gravity battery have already been supplanted by the use 
of the dynamo-electric machines, and the remainder are doomed 
to follow. There are 10 dynamo-electric machines, in constant 
use, day and night, and 5 spares are always ready to be used at 
a moment’s notice. The 10 that are in use are divided into two 
gangs, of 5 each, and each gang is driven by a 10 horse-power 
steam engine. In each gang 4 of the machines are connected 



TELEGRAPHY. 


75 


in series, like cells in a battery, and the current from the fifth 
machine is used to energize the field magnets of the other four. 
One gang furnishes + electricity to line, and the other gang - 
electricity to line ; this being required on account of the varying 
polarities of the batteries at the distant ends of the lines. The 
spare gang is used when either of the other gangs is under re¬ 
pair or examination, the current being changed in direction by a 
switch, according to requirement. 

A gang furnishes a current having about 350 volts E. M. F., 
or equivalent to about 350 cells of Callaud battery. 

The undoubted economy resulting from the use of these ma¬ 
chines for telegraphic purposes, aside from the small cost of 
maintenance, lies in the fact, that, owing to their very small in¬ 
ternal resistance, an immense number of lines can be worked 
from one gang of generators. Of course, the lines must be 
made artificially equal, by the insertion of appropriate resistances. 

Artificial resistances .—The Western Union company use for 
this purpose, cylinders of plaster of paris, having spiral grooves 
in their surfaces, in which German silver wires are wound. A 
metal plate, carrying a screw-post, is fastened at each end, the 
wire of the coil being fastened, by the shoulder of a small screw, 
to the plate, while the screw-post serves for the line connections. 
The cylinders are all of the same size—six inches long by two 
in diameter—but the grooves are of varying sizes to admit of 
coarser or finer wires being wound therein. These coils are con¬ 
nected with the line or battery at the switch, by means of a 
double conducting flexible cord attached to the terminals of the 
coil at one end, and a wedge to enter a spring-jack at the other; 
or, are connected in the battery wires, permanently, before the 
latter enter the switch. 

Danger from wires bemg heated .—A disadvantage about this 
system, lies in the danger of the wires being heated by an undue 
proportion of current, caused by a long wire becoming “ground- 


76 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


ed,” or by a resistance coil or coils being removed from a very 
short wire. One or two accidents have already occurred from 
this cause, and will doubtless recur, unless proper precautions 
are taken. An automatic safety-valve or pressure-gauge which 
prevents this accident, has been devised by Mr. George B. Scott, 
superintendent of the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company, for 
use on the lines in his charge. The apparatus consists of a 
coarse wire magnet, whose armature, sustaining an annunciator 
“ drop,” is normally held away from the core by a stout, ad¬ 
justable, spiral spring. When the current is of normal strength 
this armature holds four platinum points in contact, arranged in 
two sets of two points each. The main line current passes 
through the single spool of the magnet, and then through the 
two contact points in succession, and then out to line again. If 
the current be increased in quantity, the armature is attracted 
and the drop falls. This breaks the circuit at the platinum 
points, and as there are two, and they both separate for two 
inches or more, no spark can pass; the circuit is opened and 
remains so till closed by the attendant. At the same time the 
drop closes a local circuit and rings a vibrating bell, while a 
number plate is displayed to show which circuit is open. The 
use of this apparatus will render accidents from heated wires im¬ 
possible. 

In use on the quadruplex apparatus .—In applying the dynamo- 
electric machine currents to use on the quadruplex apparatus a 
difficulty was met with, in regard to the paths followed by the 
incoming currents, and the necessity for so arranging the re¬ 
sistances that these paths should be equal, under all of the vary¬ 
ing positions of the sending apparatus, was apparent. A satis¬ 
factory arrangement has, however, been applied in practice, so 
that these resistances can be calculated for any line.— Ihe Elec¬ 
trician. 

“ As long as the employment of the telegraph was limited, and the number of 
instruments in an office was consequently also limited, the annual cost of main- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


77 


tenance of batteries formed but a comparatively small item in the general work¬ 
ing expenses, but, at the present time, when the number of instruments at 
head offices may be numbered almost by hundreds, the substitution of mechan¬ 
ical for chemical power at all large telegraphic centers, will in time no doubt be 
adopted, as experiments have demonstrated that the dynamo-electric machine, 
possesses many advantages over batteries as at present constructed. ” 


SECTION XVII. 

MAGNETISM. 

The earliest references to the properties of the magnet occur 
in the annals of the Chinese nation, who used it as a means of 
guiding the wayfarer over the vast and trackless plains of eastern 
Asia, long before it was applied to maritime purposes. The 
compass, or, as it is even now called in Chinese, tchi-nan , ap¬ 
pears to have been first used at sea by this remarkable nation 
about the third century of our era, during the Tsin dynasty. 

What is magnetic electricity or magnetism ?—It is that form of 
electricity which exists in the magnet or loadstone. 

All electricity consists of force. Magnetism is that variety of 
force which is directive or polar. Any substance affected with it 
has two points called poles, which sustain opposite relations of 
attraction and repulsion to any other substance similarily 
affected. 

What are the properties of the magnet ?—They are as follows : 

i st. The power of attracting and repelling other magnets. 

2d. The power of attracting iron, steel, and some other sub¬ 
stances. 

3d. A directive property, or the power to take a direction 
north and south when freely suspended. 

4th. The power to cause certain electrical changes in adja¬ 
cent bodies. 

These are reduced by a careful analysis to the simple proper¬ 
ties of attraction and repulsion. 




73 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


What is the loadstone or natural magnet l —A native iron ore r 
known as “ magnetite ” magnetic oxide of iron or loadstone , Its 

properties was first observed by the ancients, and first found near 
Magnesia, an ancient city of Asia Minor. This ore is quite 
abundant in various parts of the earth, but only occasional 
masses are found which possess the remarkable property of 
magnetic attraction. Probably the most powerful natural magnets 
are found in the Hartz mountains of Germany, and in Siberia. 

What is an artificial magnet ? —A bar of iron or steel which 
has acquired similar properties by artificial means. 

What is the forni of a magnet l —Artificial magnets are made 
in various forms. The bar magnet is simply a straight bar of 
hardened steel. If such a bar be curved so that the ends are 
brought near each other, it is termed a horse shoe or U magnet. 
If several bars, either curved or straight, are united, a compound 
magnet, or magnetic battery, is formed. 

What does the fer?na?ience of an artificial magnet depend upon ? 
—It depends upon the condition of the iron of which it is 
made; pure soft iron retains its magnetism while under the influ¬ 
ence of a permanent magnet only; hard iron retains a portion 
of the magnetic influence, and hardened steel is found to retain 
this influence with a considerable degree of permanence, de¬ 
pendent upon the quality and temper of the metal. 

What is the armature of a magnetl —A bar of iron or steel of 
a form suitable to be applied to its poles. 

When is a magnet said to be armed ? —When its armature is 
applied. 

What are the poles of a magnet l —Two points which possess 
the greatest power. 

What names are applied to these poles l —The one which points 
north is called the northern and the other the southern pole. 

What is mea 7 it by “magnetic polarity f or “directive power ?”— 


TELEGRAPHY. 


79 


1 he property of taking up a fixed position with regard to the 
poles of the earth, illustrated by the compass, which is simply a 
magnetic needle, i. e. a light magnet, so suspended that it is free 
to move in obedience to terrestrial or artificial attractions. 
When thus suspended and left to itself, it vibrates for a time, 
and finally settles with its axis in a certain fixed direction, which 
for most places, is nearly north and south. 

Why does the magnetic ?ieedle point to the north ?—The reason 
why the needle points in the northerly direction is that the earth 
is in itself a magnet, attracting the magnetic needle as the ordi¬ 
nary magnets do; and the earth is a magnet as the result of 
certain cosmical facts, much affected by the action of the sun. 
These laws have periodicities, all of which have not, as yet, 
been determined. 

A condensed explanation in regard to the needle pointing to 
the northward and southward is as follows: The magnetic 
poles of the earth do not coincide with the geographical poles. 
The axis of rotation makes an angle of about 23 0 with a line 
joining the former. The needle does not everywhere point to 
the astronomical north, and is constantly variable within certain 
limits. At San Francisco it points about 17 0 to the east of 
north, and at Calais, Maine, as much to the west. 

At the northern magnetic pole a balanced needle points with 
its north end downward in a plumb line; at San Francisco it 
dips about 63°, and at the southern magnetic pole the south end 
points directly down. 

The action of the earth upon a magnetic needle at its surface 
is of about the same force as that of a hard steel magnet, forty 
inches long, strongly magnetized, at a distance of one foot. 

The foregoing is the accepted explanation of the fact that the needlepoints to 
the northward and southward, as given by Professor C. T. Patterson, superin¬ 
tendent of the United States coast survey: “Of course no ultimate reason can 
be given for this natural fact, any more than for any other observed fact in 
nature. The inherent and ultimate reason of the existence of any fact in nature. 


8 o 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


as gravity, light, heat, etc., is not known further than that it is in harmony with all 
facts in nature. Even an earthquake is in perfect harmony with, and the direct 
resultant of, the action of forces acting under general laws.” 

What is mea?it by the “ dip ” of the magnet ? —Inclination to 
the horizon, (the dip) varying with the latitude. 

The discovery of the dip of the needle is due to Robert Nor¬ 
man, a nautical instrument maker at Wapping, near London, 
who is described by Gilbert as “a skillful sailor and ingenious 
artificer.” He found that, after being touched by a magnet, the 
needle always appeared heavier at its northern end ; and making 
an instrument to determine the greatest angle formed with the 
horizon, he observed the inclination in 1576 to be 71 0 50' 

In the early part of the following century the variation of the 
decimation was clearly ascertained, and was attributed by Bond, 
a teacher of navigation in London, to the motion of two mag¬ 
netic poles. 

State the law of magnetic attraction. —Like poles repel and 
unlike poles attract each other. 

What are the substances ter?ned which are capable of acquiring 
magnetis?n ? —They are termed magnetics. 

Name the leading magnetics. —Iron, steel, cobalt, and nickel. 
The latter, however, are capable of magnetism in a very low 
degree only. 

(It is maintained that all bodies are either attracted or repelled 
by the magnet. Those which are attracted are themselves cap¬ 
able of becoming magnetic in some degree, and hence are called 
magnetics, while the other class are denominated diamagnetics. 
It is found that magnetics when exposed to the influence of a 
magnet, tend to take a direction parallel to its axis, i. e., the 
line joining its poles, but diamagnetics, on the other hand, in¬ 
cline to a direction at right angles with that line.) 

When is a substance said to be magnetized l —When it has ac¬ 
quired magnetic properties. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


8 l 


How may a bar of iron or steel be magnetized? —In three 
ways. 

ist, by contact with one or more magnetic poles. 

2d, by friction with the same. 

3d, by the inductive influence of currents of electricity. 

In the method first named what principle is to be observed ?— 
Each pole induces opposite polarity next to itself, and the same 
polarity at a distance. To produce magnetism by a simple con¬ 
tact, the inducing magnet must be quite powerful. 

Explain the method by friction. —Draw the bar to be magnet¬ 
ized, from its center to the end, several times over one pole of a 
magnet, taking care to return it each time through the air , and 
repeating the stroke in the same direction. Then place the 
other pole in the middle of the bar, and stroke the opposite end 
as before. There are, however, several other methods of devel¬ 
oping magnetism in a bar of iron or steel, by the inducing in¬ 
fluence of a permanent magnet. 

How may a magnet be made to lose its properties ?—By heating, 
by violent blows, by disuse, or by friction or induction, the 
opposite to that which developed its magnetism. 

(In reality, neither heat nor blows tend in themselves to pro¬ 
duce or destroy magnetism. The state of molecular agitation 
which they produce seems favorable to a change of magnetic 
state. Accordingly, it is found that bodies are more easily mag¬ 
netized while subjected to their influence, and it is probable that 
under the same influence magnetism is destroyed simply by the 
attraction of the separated electricities in each particle.) 

What is magnetic induction ? —The influence of a magnet 
operating at a distance. The strength of that influence depends 
upon the distance which intervenes between the magnet and the 
bar of iron ; it is greatest when they are in actual contact. 
The locality immediately surrounding the magnet is called the 
‘‘magnetic field.” 


i 


82 COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

When a magnet exerts the inductive power upon a piece of iron 
in its vicinity , is its own ?nagnetic intensity diminished? —It is not 
but is absolutely iticrcased. This is due to the reactionary influ¬ 
ence of the magnetism which is induced in the iron. For this 
reason magnets are furnished with armatures of soft iron, which 
not only prevent the loss of magnetic powers, but also sensibly 
increase it. Magnets also react upon each other in a similar 
manner. 

What takes place when a magnet is broken ? —Each part be¬ 
comes a new magnet with two poles of its own. 

Is it possible to obtam a magnet with o?ie pole only ? —It is not. 

Experiment renders it probable that the opposite polarities re¬ 
side in every particle of a magnet: that magnetic induction 
separates the pre-existent electricities of each particle, but pre¬ 
vents their passing from one particle to another. In the case of 
soft iron, as soon as the inducing cause is removed the separated 
electricities instantly unite again, by their mutual attraction, but 
in the permanent magnet they remain separated. 

According to this view a common magnet is a collection of 
millions of infinitesimal magnets, and the poles of the former 
owe their power not to any force inherent in themselves, but to 
the combined action of the forces residing in the myriads of 
magnetic particles. 

How is a magnet affected by use ? —It increases in strength by 
use until it reaches its highest power. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


*3 


SECTION XVIII. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

It appears that the deviation of a magnetic needle when sub¬ 
mitted to the action of a current of electricity, was first observed 
and published in 1802, by Romagnosi, a physicist of Trent, 
although the honor of the important discovery of electro-mag¬ 
netism has been given to Hans Christian Oersted, professor of 
natural philosophy at Copenhagen, who, in 1819, found that 
when a magnetic needle (which is so suspended that it may 
assume a directive position) is brought near a wire in which a 
voltaic current is moving, that it is influenced by such current 
as it would be by another magnet, no matter what metal is used 
lor the conductor. 



Fig. 4. -ELECTRO-MAGNET. 

What is electro-magnetism ?—The magnetism which is devel’ 
oped by the influence of electric currents. 

Where are electro-magnets most usefully and extensively em 
ployed l —In the telegraph. To them it mainly owes its effi¬ 
ciency. 

The common systems of telegraph depend entirely upon the 
electro-magnet. 

How is magnetism induced by a current of electricity ?—By 

passing it in a spiral coil around the bar to be magnetized. Such 
























8 4 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


a coil is usually made of copper wire insulated by being cov¬ 
ered with silk or some other non-conductor, and is called a 
helix. A magnet produced in this way is termed an electro¬ 
magnet. 

Why is the wire covered with silk? —To insulate it so the cur¬ 
rent will follow the whole length of the conductor. 

How is soft iron affected by magnetism ? —It receives and parts 
with it readily. Indeed, magnetism may be produced and de¬ 
stroyed in soft iron several thousand times in a second. For 
this reason soft iron magnets are altogether used for telegraphic 
purposes. 

Is hard iron or steel similarly affected ? —No; they are mag¬ 
netized slowly, and retain magnetic properties permanently. •* 
For this reason artificial magnets are made of steel. 

For telegraphic purposes, what canyou say about electromagnets? 
—They consist of two cores of soft iron, upon which is wound 
insulated copper wire ; each covered with a casing of polished 
vulcanized rubber, having round heads of rubber or wood, thus 
making spools of each, and screwed to an iron connecting bar 
called the “ heel piece.” See fig. 4. 

What is the size and length of the wire wound arou?id the 
spools ? —The size and length of the wire vary according to the 
purpose for which the magnet is designed. 

In the construction of electro-magnets for telegraphic purposes, 
what principles should be taken into consideration ? —1st. As 
much of the wire as possible must be wound next the core itself, 
in order that the distance over which the inductive influence 
must act may be as short as possible. 

2d. The diameter of the coil should be small in proportion 
to its length, for the same reason. 

Should the spools be ivound in the same direction ? —Yes. 

IIow should the ends of the wire be joined ? —Both inside ends 


TELEGRAPHY. 


85 

should be joined. If one inside should be connected with one 
outside end the current through one helix would neutralize the 
effect of the other helix, and no magnet be produced. The 
outside ends should be left free for attachment to the battery or 
other conductor. 

How is the power of the dectro-magnet mcreased ?—By an in¬ 
creased number of turns of wire in the coil, although the in¬ 
fluence is lessened by increase in the distance between the con¬ 
ducting wire and the core, the outer coils acting less powerfully 
than those beneath, because of the increased resistance, and as 
nearly all the magnetic force of an iron bar accumulates at the 
ends, or poles, a certain arrangement of the wire on the spool 
cannot be deviated from. 

Should the magnet wire around the spools be the same size for the 
mai?i li?ies as for local or short circuits ?—No ; for a long line the 
coil should consist of longer and finer wire, and for a short or 
local circuit shorter and larger wire. 

Why is this ?—Because the maximum of magnetic power is 
obtained when the resistance of the coil or coils of the instru¬ 
ment or instruments is equel to the total resistance of the re¬ 
mainder of the circuit. 

How is the electro-magnet affected by curre?its of electricity ?—• 
The current passing through the numerous turns of the spools 
causes the soft iron cores within to become magnetic, possessing 
the power of attracting with considerable force, any piece of iron 
brought near the ends or poles, and ceases this attractive power 
the moment the current ceases. 

What then does the actual power of the attractive force directly 
depend upon ?—The power of the current supplied by the battery. 

What is residual magnetism ?—When iron or steel is in con¬ 
tact with ah electro-magnet, there will be a slight adhesion, even 
after the magnetizing current ceases. But when this adhesion 
is once broken it disappears entirely. I his slight remnant of 


86 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


attractive power is called residual magnetism. It must be 
carefully observed that it affects only bodies in contact. 


SECTION XIX. 

THERMO ELECTRICITY-ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY-ANIMAL 

ELECTRICITY. 

What is thermo electricity ? —Electric currents produced by the 
agency of heat. Heat is developed, if the passage of an elec¬ 
trical current through a conductor be obstructed m any manner. 
It has also been ascertained that any obstruction to an equal 
propagation of heat in a conducting circuit will produce a cur¬ 
rent of electricity. 

Who made this discovery l —Seebeck, of Berlin, in the year 
1822, made this important discovery. 

Explain the manner in which thermo-electric currents are origi- 
nated l —Let a copper wire be separated, and each half fixed into 
one of the binding screws of an astatic galvanometer. If one 
of the free ends of the wires be now heated and pressed against 
the other, an electric current will be generated, passing at the 
juncture from the hot to the cold wire. If platinum be sub¬ 
stituted for the copper the current will be stronger. If two 
unlike metals, such as antimony and bismuth, or brass and 
German silver, be soldered together, and the point of juncture 
heated, an electrical current will also be produced. Such a 
combination is termed a thermo-electric pair; if several of these 
pairs be united, a thermo-electric pile is formed. 

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. 

“The analogy between the electric spark and lightning was 
noticed at an early period of electrical science. In 1708 Dr. 
Wall pointed out a resemblance between them. In 1735 Grey 
co?ijectured their identity, and that they differed only in degree; 



TELEGRAPHY. 


87 


and in 1748 the Abbe Nollet reproduced the conjecture of 
Grey, attended with more substantial reasons ; but it was re¬ 
served for the great American philosopher, Franklin, in June, 
1752, to demonstrate the identity by the bold experiment of 
bringing down lightning from the clouds by means of a kite 
raised immediately before a thunder storm, and by performing 
with it experiments similar to those usually made with ordinary 
electricity. ” 

What is the most common and striking manifestation of elec¬ 
tricity in nature ? —The light produced in the clouds during, or 
before a thunder storm, called “lightning,’’ and may be divided 
into three kinds : First, forked lightning; second, sheet light¬ 
ning ; third, ball lightning. 

What is the lightning l —A discharge of electricity between 
two or more clouds, or between a cloud and the earth. 

How is it caused ? —It is caused by opposite electricities ac¬ 
cumulating separately, until their mutual attraction becomes 
so great that they overcome the resistance of the air and dart 
together. 

What produces the accompanying thunder l —The violent com¬ 
motion of the atmosphere caused by the passage of the electrical 
discharge. 

“Thunder clouds have plates or strata. The discharge of electricity to the 
earth takes place in the lower cloud, and what is called sheet or heat lightning 
is that which undulates silently between the lower and upper clouds without any 
report. Hence thunder storms generally prevail in the lower regions of the 
atmosphere, and are the most frequent and violent within the tropics, decreasing 
in frequency toward the poles. They are generally attendant with an alteration 
of the wind and temperature, and are conducive to health and purity of the air 
we breathe. 

“Forked lightning, however, is only held to be true electricity. The second 
kind is the most frequent, and is held to be due to the combustion of hydrogen 
in oxygen, and other chemical changes. 

« Ball lightning is probably not electricity, but a mass of gas in intense ignition. 
The comparative harmlessness of the last two would seem to indicate their non¬ 
electric character.” 



88 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


What is the theory of lightning rods ?—They protect the 
building on which they are placed, either by conducting the dis¬ 
charge to the earth, or by quietly neutralizing the electrified 
cloud by discharging opposite electricity into it. 

Has nature provided any lightning rods ?—“ Yes. Providence 
has provided a harmless conductor in every leaf, spire of grass, 
and twig. A common blade of grass, pointed by nature’s ex¬ 
quisite workmanship, is three times more effectual than the 
finest cambric needle, and a single pointed twig than the metal¬ 
lic point of the best constructed rod.” 

Explain Franklin's kite experiment. —“ He prepared his kite 
by making a small cross of two light strips of cedar, the arms of 
sufficient length to extend to the four corners of a large silk 
handkerchief stretched upon them ; to the extremities of the 
arms of the cross he tied the corners of the handkerchief. This 
being properly supplied with a tail, loop, and string, could be 
raised in the air like a common paper kite; and being made of 
silk was more capable of bearing rain and wind. To the up¬ 
right arm of the cross was attached an iron point, the lower end 
of which was in contact with the string by which the kite was 
raised, which was a hempen cord. At the lower extremity of 
this cord, near the observer, a key was fastened ; and in order 
to intercept the electricity in its descent, and prevent it from 
reaching the person who held the kite, a silk ribbon w?s tied to 
the ring of the key, and continued to the hand by which the 
kite was held.” 

Name some other natural exhibitions of electricity. —Electric 

storms, aurora borealis or ^northern lights, and earth currents. 
Also in the attractive power of the loadstone or natural magnet, 
this power depending upon the presence of magnetic electricity 
or magnetism. 

What are electric storms ? —Atmospheric disturbances, in con¬ 
sequence of which the former becomes heavily charged with 
electricity in certain localities. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


89 


What is the cause of electric storms ?—Many theories are ad¬ 
vanced, but the real cause is probably unknown, although the 
fact seems to be pretty well established by many circumstances 
and observations, that the periodic bright spots on the sun are 
in some way associated with the storms and aurora. The sun 
spots are periodic, that is the periods of maximum average 
eleven years, or rather every tenth to thirteenth year they occur. 
These sun spots we now know as revealed by the great telescopes, 
are storms of inconceivable extent and violence, sweeping with 
fearful rapidity over the surface of the sun. When this is the 
state of the sun the electric pulse of the earth seems to respond, 
and we have many splendid displays of aurora. This being the 
case it can hardly be doubted that when the sun is in this state 
of tremendous commotion, electricity plays a prominent part in 
the nature of induction , produces the phenomena of electric 
storms and aurora, the infinite distance which intervenes between 
the sun and the earth offering no obstacle to the inter-action of 
the electrical force. The electric storm of November 17, 1882, 
which produced instantaneously such violent and widespread 
electrical disturbances over a wide extent of territory is regarded 
as the most violent since 1859. 


ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. 

What is animal electricity ?—Electricity generated in the 
various organs of animals. Galvani’s well known experiment 
with the frog was the starting point of investigation in this 
branch of electrical science. Certain fishes have the power of 
giving strong shocks. On dissection these fish are found to be 
possessed of very curious electrical batteries, which are so con¬ 
nected with their brains as to be under their complete control. 
It is supposed that more or less electricity is generated in the 
various organs of all animals, when m the performance of their 
proper functions. 



9 ° 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


PART THIRD. 


TF)6 TGLGGRAPR. 


"Telegraph poles, wires, and apparatus are the levers that move the modern 
world.” 


THE EARLY HISTORY AND INVENTION OF THE ELECTRIC TELE¬ 
GRAPH. 

“ In vain were efforts made, from the middle of the last cen¬ 
tury till towards the end of it, to utilize frictional electricity for 
telegraphing. A pretty apparatus for lecture experiments might 
here and there be found in use, but any further practical appli¬ 
cation seemed impossible. The end of the century brought a 
knowledge of galvanic electricity; and in the beginning of July, 
1809, M. Samuel Thomas von Sommering (born in 1755, at 
Thorn, and a member of the Munich Academy since 1805) 
constructed the first galvanic telegraph, in which he utilized the 
phenomenon first observed by Carlisle (in 1800), that the gal¬ 
vanic current decomposes water into its elementary constituents, 
oxygen and hydrogen. Sommering covered 27 wires with silk, 
so as to insulate them, formed them into a rope, and brought 
the gold point ends of the wires, each of which represented an 
alphabet letter, into a glass trough filled with water; while, at 
the other end of the rope, two of the wires could be connected 
with the poles of a voltaic battery; whereupon gas bubbles be¬ 
gan to rise in the trough, at the two wire ends—oxygen at one 








TELEGRAPHY. 


91 


and hydrogen, in greater quantity, at the other. Sommering 
thus always telegraphed two letters at once, the letter of the 
hydrogen wire being regarded as the first. To announce the 
commencement of the process an alarm was added/’ 

“The possibility of telegraphing with such apparatus is un¬ 
doubted; and, as afterwards improved by Schweigger, who re¬ 
duced the number of wires to two, the telegraph would have 
been practically available; but as the demand for good telegraph 
quickly increased, better means were found of satisfying it. 

The development of telegraphy took a new direction, how¬ 
ever, when Prof. Oersted, of Copenhagen, in the end of 1819, 
made the observation that an electric current deflects a mag¬ 
netic needle, when passing near it, out of its normal direction 
north and south. 

To about the same time as the needle and pointer telegraphs 
reach back also those of the Morse system. Prof. Morse (who 
died in 1872) has told us that it was in October, 1832, on his 
return voyage to America, the idea occurred to him of making 
electricity give durable and audible signals at a distance; and 
he also then sketched out an electro-magnetic telegraph, and a 
telegraphic dictionary for the signals, which were formed of 
dots. It was in November, 1835, he showed his friends in 
New York a model, differing essentially from the later Morse 
apparatus, and in which a zig-zag line was drawn by a pencil on 
a strip of paper passing before it.” But it was not until 1844 
that the Morse system was successfully put in operation by the 
building of the experimental line between Washington and 
Baltimore. The honor of the invention of the electric telegraph, 
however, must be divided among many illustrious names; no 
single individual can justly claim the distinction. “It was, in 
fact, a growth rather than an invention, the work of many 
brains and of many hands.” But the well deserved honor re¬ 
mained for Professor Morse to bring the electric magnetic telegraph 
into commercial use, by the invention of the alphabetic charac- 


92 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


ters, and the practical adaptation of previous discoveries to the 
end in view. 


SECTION XX. 

RELATION OF CIRCUITS AND INSTRUMENTS. 

How 7 na?iy classes of circuits are there upon a common telegraph 
line l —-Two; main and local. 

Define each. —The main circuit is that which extends the en¬ 
tire length of the line, of which the telegraph wire from station 
to station forms a part. 

The local circuit is a short one confined to the office where 
it is used. 

How ?na?iy of the latter are there on a line ?—As many at 
least as there are offices, and sometimes there are more. 

What battery is used upon each circuit ?—The gravity battery. 

When is a person said to break or open, and when to close cir¬ 
cuit? —A'person breaks or opens circuit when he interrupts 
communication so that the electrical current ceases. He closes 
when he restores communication again. 

What instruments are commonly employed in transmitti?ig a?id 
receiving messages ?—The key, register or sounder, and relay. 

With which circuit is each connected l —The key with the main, 
the register or sounder with the local, and the relay with both. 

What is the office of the key ? —To open and close the main 
circuit. 

What of the main circuit l —To operate the relay. 

What of the relay ?—To open and close the local circuit. 

What of the local circuits —To operate the register or sounder. 

i 

Explain then, in brief, the relation of the various instru7?ie?its 
and circuits. —The key opens and closes the main circuit, the 



TELEGRAPHY. 


93 


main circuit operates the relay, the relay opens and closes the 
local circuit, and the local circuit operates the register or 
sounder. 

What is the difference between what is known as the open and 
closed circuit system ? —“ The difference is that in the open cir¬ 
cuit system the batteries are always detached and the line con¬ 
nected to the ground at each end when not in use. A main 
battery of sufficient power to work the entire line is required at 
every station, which is used in transmitting from that station, but 
is idle at all other times. In the closed circuit system, on the 
other hand, there is always a current upon the line, and only 
one battery is required for the whole circuit, though it is better 
to divide this and place half at each end, if the line is of con¬ 
siderable length. The closed circuit system is universal in this 
country, while the open circuit is more common in Europe.” 

What are the different modes of transmission to distant points ? 
—Hand transmission, called key telegraphy; mechanical trans¬ 
mission, called automatic telegraphy; verbal transmission, called 
telephony. 

How is the speed regulated at which messages can be sent ? —I. 
The speed at which messages can be sent is regulated by the 
number of currents required to form each signal, and by the 
rate at which the successive currents of electricity which deter¬ 
mine the signal can be sent. Hence we have ordinary fast- 
speed telegraphy. 

II. The capacity of the wire for the transmission of messages 
is also regulated by the number, which can be simultaneously 
transmitted. Hence we have multiplex telegraphy. 

Explain, in brief \ key telegraphy or hand transmission .—It is 
simply a systematic putting on and taking off the current, the 
cessation being equally as important as the continuance of it. 

Does a message have to be forwarded at every office it is to pass ? 

—No; for when a line is in a normal condition, every key in the 


94 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


same circuit always operates every machine situated in it at the 
same instant and in the same manner. 

Then what is the basis of the Morse telegraph system ?—The 

duplication at one point by the magnet, and its armature of the, 
motions made on the key by the hand of the operator at another 
separate and distant point. 


SECTION XXL 

THE LINE OR MAIN CIRCUIT. 

It is of the utmost importance that the line should be well 
constructed and thoroughly insulated. Although the first cost 
of a properly constructed line may be greater than that of a 
line erected with less care, the extra cost will be more than com¬ 
pensated by the greater immunity from those defects which are 
prolific sources of vexatious delays and interruptions, with their 
consequent losses. Especial attention should be given to the 
details respecting the size and sinking, of earth plates where 
water or gas pipes are absent, and the proper soldering of all 
line connections. 

Of what is the mam circuit composed l —Chiefly of the follow¬ 
ing parts : 

ist. The metals and liquids of the main batteries. 

2d. The telegraph wire from office to office. 

3d. A loop from this wire passing into each office and in- 
eluding the key and relay helices. 

4th. The earth. 

What three essential parts does the line as ordinarily constructed 
consist of l —The poles , wires , and insulators. 

What kind of timber is used for poles ?—Red and white cedar, 
chestnut, redwood, juniper, and cypress. 




TELEGRAPHY. 


95 


Give some details regarding the preparation of poles before set¬ 
ting. —“Neither green poles nor those having the bark upon 
them should be used. They should be cut in the winter, at 
least six months before they are brought into service. The bark 
should be carefully removed, and the poles should be stacked in 
such a manner that the air may have free circulation among 
them, the lowest tier being several inches from the ground. 
They should also be protected from the direct rays of the sun, 
as they will be apt to split if allowed to dry too rapidly. The 
butt-ends of the poles should be charred to the distance of a 
foot above the ground line before they are used. If it be im¬ 
possible to procure seasoned poles, the bark should be removed 
as before, and the butts should be thoroughly baked and charred. 
Green poles should not be tarred, as the timber is thereby pre¬ 
vented from drying, and decay speedily ensues. The poles 
should not be painted until several months after they are set in 
the ground, and should never be painted in wet weather, nor 
before they are thoroughly dry.” 

What is the lejigth and size of the poles o?i an ordinary line ?— 
The length and size of telegraph poles depends upon the local¬ 
ity and the number of wires they are to carry. The length of 
poles are from twenty-five to thirty feet, and a diameter of at 
least six inches at the top. On principal routes and in the 
streets of cities longer and larger poles are used. 

How deep are they set in the ground ?—On an ordinary line 
poles should be set in the ground to a depth of about five feet, 
and in passing around an angle or curve lean against the strain, 
and when practicable on the inside of the curve of a railway, 
and should be set a uniform distance of 25 feet from the track, 
in order to clear the track if they should fall. “The holes 
should be dug as narrow as possible and perpendicular at one 
side, so that the pole will have one side of solid earth, and the 
earth well tamped down as replaced.” 

What should be done to strengthen the poles at angles and 


9 6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


curves ?—The effective fixing of struts, stays, or guys, should be 
employed, before the wires are attached. 

Whai is the distance between the poles ?—The distance varies 
according to the curves and nature of the ground, probably 
about thirty to the mile is the average. 

Which side of a railway should the poles be erected ?—The pres¬ 
sure of the wind on the poles and wires in a gale is very great, 
therefore they should, when practicable, be erected on the lee 
side side of a railway, in order to be sheltered from the prevail¬ 
ing winds. Where the line runs north and south the east side 
should always be chosen. 

What is the average period of the usefulness of a pole under 
ordinary circumstances ?—The soil in which they are set, and 
also the atmosphere and sunlight has much to do with tbeir life, 
for if one breaks off at the surface of the ground, or near the 
surface, as is usually the case, it will be five feet or more shorter 
than the others, and hence it is generally regarded as unfit to 
re-set, and a new one must take its place. In some locations 
this is provided for by having all the poles long enough to re-set 
if they are sound enough for it to be economical to do so. 

When considered apart from any local catastrophe or universal 
storm, the poles which are cut in winter are found to last as fol¬ 
lows, according to the wood used, without being renewed : 
Cedar, 16 years: chestnut, 13 years; these are used in the 
Eastern, Middle, and Western states; juniper and cypress are 
used in the Southern states, and redwood is used in California. 
Spruce lasts seven years and juniper thirteen years. If poles are 
cut in the summer their life will be about five years shorter than 
if cut in the winter. It is seldom that mixed woods are used on 
a line ; they are all of one kind of wood.— Journal of the Tele¬ 
graph, 

“ The official return of the Western Union Telegraph Company to the Super¬ 
intendent of the United States Census, in July 1882, shows the following facts 
as to the poles used during the year: Average length of poles, 27 feet; diam- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


97 


■eter at top, six inches; kind of wood used, cedar, chestnut, juniper, cypress, and 
redwood. These poles were obtained in all parts of the United States and in 
Canada. The average cost of each pole delivered without freight was one dol¬ 
lar and two cents. All these poles were round except about one-fiftieth, which 
were sawed or squared. No process was used for preserving poles, and their 
average life, according to the wood used and the location where set, was twelve 
to fifteen years, and most durable wood in favorable situations did not exceed 
twenty-five years. The woods preferred were red cedar, white cedar, chestnut, 
and redwood.” 

What ki?id of wire is employed for the line ?—Although copper 
is a better conductor than iron, yet it is more costly and not so 
strong, hence the latter is used. The sizes usually employed on 
ordinary lines are Nos. 8 and 9, and for very long lines Nos. 
4 and 6. For short private lines or telephone lines, Nos. n, 
12, and 14 are generally used. The longer the line the larger 
should be the wire, as the larger the wire the better the conduc¬ 
tor. The smaller wire offers greater resistance to the passage of 
the current, and , consequently, much greater care must be exer¬ 
cised in the insulation of the line. The increase of resistance 
also virtually adds to the length of the circuit, rendering neces¬ 
sary an augmentation of battery power. 

What is done to preserve the durability of wire and protect it 
from rust l —The wire is, or should be zinc-coated, or what is 
more familiarly known “galvanized.” The zinc-coated wire has 
proven very durable in most localities. In smoky places, how¬ 
ever, where large quantities of coal are daily consumed, the sul¬ 
phurous vapors produced thereby attack the zinc coating, and 
the wire is often speedily destroyed. This may be prevented to a 
great extent, by varnishing or painting the wire when putting up. 

How long will ordinary telegraph wire last ?—The falling of a 
pole generally does much damage to the arms, insulators and 
wires. If they were all put up new at once, plain wire will last 
from twelve to fifteen years, and the galvanized wire used at the 
present day, being the best conductor, will last in the most favor¬ 
able atmosphere for from sixteen to twenty years, but no longer, 


9 8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


and where there are strains by poles or wires falling they will not 
last so long, and in cities and large towns, where there is much 
gas and moisture it will not last more than two or three years. 
At all events, when a line begins to be about ten or twelve years 
old, and has plain wire, it is regarded as unreliable, and the 
safest and most economical way is to rebuild it, throughout, of 
new materials. The cost of constant repair and isolated and 
frequent transportation of posts and other material, and the 
labor of repairs and re-setting, cost almost as much in a short 
time as it would to rebuild. Under the usual course of things 
a telegraph line thirty-six years old, has been entirely rebuilt at 
least three times, and in many cases nearly four times. 

The trunk lines of the Western Union Telegraph Company 
were first built more than thirty years ago, and nearly all of their 
lines have been rebuilt at least once. Where a line is built for 
only a few wires and it is proved that more are required it is 
then necessary to rebuild it entirely with longer poles, and in 
such case all wires are also put up new, if they are expected to 
be in constant use.— Journal of the Telegraph. 

What is the weight per mile and resistance of the wire generally 
used for telegraph lines ? 

No. 4 weight, 730 pounds. Resistance, 6 ohms. 


a 

6 

<( 

540 

a 

a 

IO 

a 

a 

8 

a 

385 

a 

a 

14 . I 

a 

a 

9 

(< 

330 

a 

a 

16.4 

a 

a 

12 

<( 

168 

a 

a 

32.7 

a 


The Birmingham wire-gauge is generally regarded as the 
standard, but it is not really one gauge, but an approximation 
only, as different manufacturers do not agree in sizes. 

* 

What should be the principal qualities of telegraph wire ? —The 

wire should be soft and capable of stretching from fifteen to 
twenty per cent, before breaking, and bear bending backwards 
and forwards several times without fracture. The breaking 


TELEGRAPHY. 


99 


strain of wire should not be less than two and a half times its 
own weight per mile. It should also be required to bear with¬ 
out splitting or breaking, a certain number of twists when placed 
between two vises about half a foot apart; the more twists it will 
bear without fracture the better its ductility. 

What terms are applied to the different qualities of telegraph 
wire?—“Extra Best Bestf (Ex. B. B.), a term applied to the 
wire which stands highest of all in conductive power, manufact¬ 
ured from the very best iron , pure and uniform in quality, and 
very tough and pliable, weight per mile ohm, of from 4,600 to 
5,100 lbs. “Best Bestf (B.B.) a term applied to the quality of wire 
less uniform and tough, but stands a good mechanical test, is 
used very largely in the telephone service, and almost exclusively 
by some large telegraph companies and for railway telegraph, 
lines; weight per mile ohm, 5,500 to 5,800 lbs. 

“Best,” (B) a term almost indiscriminately applied to the 
lower grades of wire designed for electric service; a harder 
and less pliable wire; about 6,500 lbs. weight per mile ohm. 

Are wires affected by the extremes of summer and winter tem¬ 
perature ? —Yes. Especially in the northern states, which usu¬ 
ally causes a variation of from three to four feet per mile in the 
length of an iron wire.— Prescott. 

Does the temperature affect the resistance of wire ? —Yes. As 
the temperature of a metal increases or diminishes, so does its 
resistance. Iron wire increases in resistances 0.21 per cent 
for each degree (Fahr.) through which it is raised, and owing to 
the diurnal variations of temperature in our climate, consider¬ 
able difference must be experienced in the resistance of the wire 
as between midday and midnight. 

What is the meaning of dead idire ?—In large cities the almost 
innumerable net-work of wires belonging to different corpora¬ 
tions, necessitate frequent attention. Frequent changes in the 
systems produce wires that, though left standing, are disused. 


IOO 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


These are called dead wires. Each company keeps a chart of 
its wires, and whenever the use of any wire is discontinued the 
fact is noted on the chart, so that when occasion requires it the 
wire may be used again. When old wires are replaced by new 
the old wire is collected and sold. 

What is meant by skin wires ?—Skin wires are those put up 
without authority. Whenever these are discovered, however, 
they are unceremoniously cut down. Where they come from or 
who puts them up it is sometimes impossible to tell. 

What is the meaning of “phantom wire ” ?—Additional cir¬ 
cuits created by the introduction of duplex and quadruplex sys¬ 
tem of telegraph. 

Are covered or insulated line wires ever usedl —Yes; it is a 
necessity to use covered wires to prevent contact and crosses in 
some localities in cities, especially house-top wires, on account 
of the great number of such wires which cross and recross each 
other, often not over an inch apart. 

To obviate this evil and do away with the nuisance of so many aerial lines in 
cities, many underground systems of telegraph have been proposed, but as yet, 
owing principally to the enormous expense, none have been generally adopted 
in this country. However, extensive underground systems are in successful 
operation in European cities, which thoroughly demonstrates its feasibility. 




How should wires be splicedl —The two ends should first be 
brightened, and then each wire should be firmly wound around 
the>other, the different convolutions touching one another, and 
passing as near as may be at right angles with the wire, which 
they surround. Not less than five or six turns of each wire should 
be made, and the ends cut off short (see fig. 5). A splice should 







TELEGRAPHY. 


IOI 


never be made by turning the wire back, and wound upon itself 
forming a loose loop. To insure a perfect joint, all splices 
should be soldered. 

Should the wires be strung on the poles as soon as set? —No; 

the poles should be allowed to stand a sufficient time to allow the 
earth to settle around them, and become firm before the wires 
are placed upon them. 

What precautions should be observed i?i stringing wire ?—Wires 
of different gauges should not be placed upon the same sup¬ 
ports, as they are apt to form contacts, as they do not swing in 
time when blown by the wind. However, when it becomes 
necessary to use wires of different weights, the lighter wires 
should be placed above the heavier ones. Great care should be 
observed to give the wires the proper “dip” or “sag,” between 
poles, or points of support, especially where a number of wires 
are strung on the same supports. When strung in summer they 
should not be pulled up too tightly, or they will be liable to 
break from the action of the winter frosts, and the poles are lia¬ 
ble to be torn up by the contraction of the wires. On the other 
hand, if wires put up in cold weather are allowed too much 
“dip” they are very liable to form contacts in summer. A wire 
should never be subjected to more than one-third of its breaking 
strain. 

What should be done to prevent escape of current where it is 
impossible to run the wires free fro??i the branches and leaves of 
trees ?—Loss of current may be partially if not wholly prevented 
at such places by using “covered wire,” or covering the wire with 
tarred tape. 

How is the main line insulatedfro 7 n the earth ?—By being sup¬ 
ported in the air upon poles by insulators made wholly or in 
part of glass or some other non-conducting material. 

In case of aerial lines, insulation at the points of support is 
considered sufficient; but when the line is carried through damp 


102 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


tunnels, or under ground, or through water, the insulation must 
be continuous, which is effected by covering the wire with gutta 
percha, vulcanized rubber, or “kerite,” the latter recommended 
as giving very gratifying results. 

What is said of the construction of the glass insulators ?—They 
are formed so as to give the greatest possible length of insulating 
surface between the line and the supporting pin or bracket, the 
under surface concave, to prevent accumulation of moisture on 
that part in wet weather, and a screw thread upon the inside 
of the socket, which fits into a corresponding screw cut upon 
the wooden supporting pin or bracket. 

How is the line secured to the insulator ? —By a tie wire, which 
passes around the insulator in a groove, and the ends wrapped 
around the line wire. 

Is glass a perfect insulator ? —This insulator, like all others, is 
open to several objections. Its chief deficiency lies in the fact 
that in damp weather it is liable to be covered with a film of 
moisture which furnishes the current a means of escape. 

What characteristics should a perfect insulator possess ?—It 
should have the smallest possible diameter consistent with 
strength; the distance between the wire and bracket should be 
as great as possible; the material of which it is composed should 
be a non-conductor of heat and electricity; it should not absorb 
moisture, but its surface should repel water; it should be unaf¬ 
fected by the vicissitudes of the weather; it should be free from 
pores and cracks, and it should admit of being readily cleansed. 
The materials usually employed for insulating purposes are all 
more or less deficient in the above mentioned particulars. The 
glass insulator is, however, very extensively used in this country, 
principally on account of its cheapness, but various other insu¬ 
lators have been brought into use to a limited extent, among 
which may be mentioned the porcelain insulator for outside 


TELEGRAPHY. 


I03 


office use, and general short line work, where the regular insu¬ 
lator is not required. 

How are the wires attached to the poles ?—When a single wire 
is run, the wire is attached to the insulator, screwed upon a pin 
inserted in the top of the pole, or screwed to a wooden bracket, 
spiked to the side of the pole near the top, far enough below to 
insure the wire being caught should the insulator become broken. 
Where a number of wires are run, cross arms are used. The 
insulators are screwed to wooden pins on these arms, placed 
about twenty-two inches between centres. 

What kind of cross arms are used ?—Cross arms generally 
used are of well seasoned white pine planed off and beveled 
on the upper corners, and painted with two coats of rubber 
paint—size, four by five inches, and varying in length according 
to the number of wires to be used. 

How are the cross arms secured to the poles ?—Commencing 
near the top they are placed about twenty-two inches apart, one 
directly beneath the other, in gains cut into the pole, fastened by 
two, and sometimes three lag screws , depending on the length of 
the cross arm. This is called framing the pole, and should be 
done with the pins and insulators fitted before it is set up. 

Explain the insulation of loops from main wires leading into 
offices .—Inside of the office their insulation is effected by cover¬ 
ing the wire with gutta percha, silk, cotton, or some similar non¬ 
conductor. 

How are wires looped into way offices ?—There are several 
plans. The usual method is, to run the wires direct from an 
office pole to hook or glass insulators on a cross arm securely 
fastened several inches below the top of the window, and thence, 
through hard rubber tubes, the outer ends pointing downward, 
inserted into the top of the window casing above the insulators, 
so that the wires will lead upward from them ; they are then se¬ 
cured inside by screw posts or otherwise, from which the office 


io4 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


wires lead. Or the ends of the wires may be fastened to the 
insulators, and kerite covered wire run through holes bored in the 
window casing above the insulators, stripping and brightening 
the ends several inches and winding them around the line wires, 
first brightening the same. 

State another plan. —Another plan is, to cut the line wire and 
insert a glass insulator, by breaking off the top and running one 
end of the wire through it, the other around it, and winding 
the ends back upon the line, and to each side of this, connect 
wires leading to the office. 

How are house-top wires looped into offices ?—In various ways, 
according to circumstances. A common plan is to run the main 
line to porcelain or hook insulators on a counter brace over¬ 
hanging the eave, and to drop the loop down to insulators on 
an arm or on brackets, spiked to the wall close to the window, 
and connect the leading in wires to these. 

What method is employed where there are a great many wires 
leading into an office ? —Different methods are employed ; usually 
the wires are led into the office from an office pole containing a 
number of cross arms, but this is not always practicable. A 
good plan, and the one now usually adopted, where there are a 
large number of wires, is to build a cupola on the top of the 
building, surrounded by several wooden bars securely fastened, 
one above the other, containing the insulators, and the leading 
in wires connected to the lines at the insulator and on the in¬ 
side to screw posts from which the office wires are led. 

How do the extremities of the mam line connect with the earth ? 
—By connection with the terminal ground wires. Great care , 
however, must be taken to have the earth connections perfect. 
Insulated No. 16 copper wire should be used, and spliced to 
about six or seven feet of bare copper wire after it is securely 
connected to an iron water pipe or gas pipe outside of the 
meter. The pipe, however, should be filed or scraped bright 


TELEGRAPHY. 


I 05 

and clean for several inches, and the wire carefully and tightly 
wrapped around it, each convolution close to the preceding one, 
and then tightly secured and soldered. If water or gas pipes 
are not accessible, attach the wire securely to a plate of copper, 
or iron, having considerable surface, and buried sufficiently deep 
in the ground to reach moisture at all times of the year Earth 
currents sometimes occur when the terminal ground wires are 
attached to dissimilar ground plates or pipes, therefore the 
•terminal wire, should connect with the same kind of metal at 
both ends of the line. 

How many mai?i batteries are required upon a line ?—Generally 
two, one at each terminus; but short lines sometimes employ 
one only. The situation of the battery would matter little if it 
were possible to secure at all times a perfect insulation of the 
line. As this condition cannot be secured, however, it is better 
to divide the battery into at least two sections, and place them 
one at each end of the line, so that the current may be as nearly 
equal as possible throughout the entire length of the circuit. 

How many cells of battery are required on an ordinary line ?—- 
It depends on the number of instruments in circuit—the size 
and quality of wire, completeness of insulation, etc. Probably 
one cell of battery to every forty or fifty ohms resistance in the 
circuit is sufficient. 

In connecting main batteries with the line what rule must be 
observed ?—Like poles must never be connected. The wire 
leading from the positive pole of one battery must join the 
negative of the next, and the positive pole of one and the neg¬ 
ative pole of the other terminal battery, must connect with the 
earth. 

Can more than one circuit be worked from a single batteiy ? 
Yes ; but the battery must have a very low internal resistance to 
get good results. 

Where several lines divergefrom one battery is it necessary that 


io6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


each should have a terminal battery of its own ?—No ; one such 
battery, provided it be of sufficient power, and has the required 
internal resistance, will operate all of them by division of cur¬ 
rent, according to their several resistances i. e., if they offer 
equal resistance, and are equally well insulated. 

By this arrangement, it is a singular fact that a battery sufficient for one line 
will work several with equal facility, provided there be not too great a difference 
in their lengths. Practically, the limit to variation in length may be stated as 
follows: Of the several lines operated from one battery either may be long or 
short as desired, without reference to the length of the others, provided none of 
them extend less than fifty miles, and provided also, that if either line fall shoit 
of that distance, there be introduced into its circuit a rheostat (See Sec. XXIX) 
of such resistance that line and rheostat together shall offer a resistance equal 
to that of fifty miles of common line wire. 

How many circuits may be worked from one battery ? —The 

number of circuits which may be worked in this manner de¬ 
pends upon the proportion between the joint resistances of the 
circuits and the internal resistance of the battery. When the 
internal resistance of the battery is inappreciably small, as com¬ 
pared with that of the circuits connected therewith, but little 
effect will be produced upon any given line by opening or closing 
the other, but the sulphate of copper batteries now universally 
employed, have too high an internal resistance to allow of more 
than about three Imes being worked from them satisfactorily. 

Is there any objection to this system ? —Yes; the principal ob¬ 
jection is that, in wet weather the resistance of the circuits is 
greatly diminished, which necessarily determines the interference 
of one line with another, and as the battery necessarily becomes 
exhausted sooner than if it had but one line connected, the con¬ 
sumption of material being exactly in proportion to the work 
done, there seems to be no economy in working several lines 
from one battery. However, this mode of working is quite gen¬ 
eral in America, but it is advisable, in case of failure, never to 
have less than two distinct sets of batteries at one station. 

How may the power of the batteiy as well as the character of 


TELEGRAPHY. 


I 07 

its effects be modified? —This may be done by grouping the cells 
in various numerical relations.—For example, six cells may be 
arranged in consecutive order, in which case we have the max¬ 
imum of electro-motive force possible with that number. If such 
a battery be arranged in two groups of three cells each, the 
quantity will be doubled, but the electro-motive force will only be 
half as great as in the former instance. Such a battery may also 
be arranged in three groups of two cells each, and finally, each 
zinc and each copper may be joined to a common conductor, 
each on its own side, by which arrangement the greatest quan¬ 
tity effects of the battery are obtained, whilst the combination 
possesses the electro-motive force of only one couple. 

The principle of grouping the battery cells should be well understood as it 
may prove of great practical service when desired to produce certain effects, as 
in case of a heavy escape of the current on the line; many operators would 
increase the electro-motive force of the battery, by adding more cells; according 
to the first method, it would be much better if the extra cells were added in 
such a manner as to increase the quantity of the current, rather than its electro¬ 
motive force. If the quantity be increased, the loss caused by the escape is at 
least partially repaired; but an increase of electro-motive force only tends to 
aggravate the evil which it is desired to remedy, by urging the electric current 
over the escape to the ground with greater energy. 

How does the main battery afford communication between distant 
places ?—By controlling the operation of relay instruments in all 
those places. Thus, a person at any part of the main circuit 
can, by opening and closing it, direct the action of the relays 
throughout the entire circuit, though it extend several hundred 
miles. 

What is the average length of a single circuit ? —One hundred 
and seventy-five or two hundred miles. 

Circuits three or four hundred miles long are not uncommon, and in a few 
instances single circuits have been worked through a distance of one or even 
three thousand miles. 

If perfect insulation could be secured long circuits could be worked quite as 
easily as shorter ones, but it has been found impossible to work such long cir¬ 
cuits during all states of our variable weather, without the use of repeaters. 

The longest span of wire known is used for a telegraph in India, over the 


Io8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


River Kistuah, between Bezorah and Sectanagrum. It is more than 6,000 feet 
long, and is stretched between two hills, each 1,200 feet high. 

State in brief the course of the main current. —Starting from 
one main battery, it passes along the wire, through the lightning 
arrester, the switch, key, and relay helices in each office, through 
the intermediate main batteries, if there are any, to the termi¬ 
nal main battery; thence it continues on to the earth by the 
ground wire, and in effect through the earth back to the ground 
wire of the first battery, and by that to its starting place, and 
so on. 

Does the current ?'eally pass back through the earth ?—Probably 
not, though the effect is the same as would be produced if it 
did so. 

What is the explanation of this phenomenon ?—The earth must 
be regarded as a reservoir of electricity which yields up to one 
end of the line as much as it receives from the other, without 
permitting any “increase” or “decrease” of its electricity. 
However, on this subject scientists differ in opinion, but the fact 
remains, that for all practical purposes the earth may be used as 
a return wire. 

In reference to this phenomenon, Mr. W. H. Preese, electrician of the post- 
office telegraph system of England, says: The discovery of the tclephotie has 
enabled us to establish beyond doubt the fact that currents of electricity actually 
traverse the earth’s crust. The theory then that the earth acts as a great reser¬ 
voir for electricity may be placed in the physicist’s waste-paper basket, with 
plogiston, the materiality of light, and other hypotheses. Telephones have been 
fixed upon a wire passing from the ground floor to the top floor of a large 
building, the gas pipes being used as a return, and the Morse signals sent from 
a telegraph office two hundred and fifty yards away have been distinctly read; in 
fact, if the gas and water systems be used, it is impossible to exclude telegraphic 
signals from the telephone circuit. There are several cases on record of tele¬ 
phone circuits miles away from any telegraph wires, but in a line with the earth 
terminals, picking up telegraphic signals. When an electric light system uses 
the earth, it is stoppage to all telephonic communication in its neighborhood. 
The whole telephonic communication of Manchester was one day broken down 
from this cause, and in the city of London the effect was at one time so strong 
as not only to destroy telephonic communication, but to ring the bells. A tele- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


I 09 


phone circuit, using the earth for return, acts as a shunt to the earth, picking 
up the currents that are passing, in proportion to the relative resistances of the 
earth and the wire. The earth offers resistance, and consequently obeys the 
laws of Ohm. 

By whom a?id how was the discovery made that the earth coidd 
be used to C 077 iplete one-half of the circuits —This important dis¬ 
covery is attributed to Professor Steinheil, of Munich, who in 
1838, while making some experiments on the Nuremberg Fur¬ 
ther railroad for the purpose of determining whether the track 
could be used for telegraphic purposes, discovered that the cur¬ 
rent passed from one of the rails to the other by means of the 
earth. Although it is stated that as early as 1747, Dr. J. Wat¬ 
son, of London, constructed a short telegraph line using fric¬ 
tional electricity and employing the earth for a return wire. 

What is the advantage of e 77 iploying the earth as a part of the 
circuitl —It saves the trouble and expense of an additional wire 
for the return current. Also, since the earth opposes no resist¬ 
ance to the transmission of electricity, the battery power thus 
required for a given distance is only half of what would be 
necessary if the current was returned by a second wire. 

What causes the peculiar hwnming of telegraph wires at the 
point of support l —This noise is caused by vibration. Not by 
the messages or electricity passing over the wires as many erro¬ 
neously suppose. 

Is there any device for preventing the ?ioise'l —Yes; various 
arrangements have been devised to remedy the evil—probably 
the most effective is Clark’s device called the anti-hum. 

Describe its co 7 istruction. —It is composed of an ordinary 
shackle of galvanized iron, provided with a washer or cushion 
of soft rubber, the wire being cut, and the ends connected to 
the device; a loop passing around the anti-hum, and connected 
with the line wire conveys the current. 

When the lines are out of order how are they repaired ?—By the 
local repairer within the territory assigned to him, who is re- 


no 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


quired, when not actually engaged upon the line, to be at all 
times, day and night, accessible to the manager of the station at 
the place to which he has been appointed, and is required to 
have everything in readiness to start on the instant when noti¬ 
fied of trouble. 

What are the ordinary tools used by repairmen ? —Plyers, 
vises and strap, climbers, splicing clamps, hatchets, pulleys, and 
tackle. 

What is the Ohio law regarding wilful or malicious injury of 
telegraph lines l —“ Any person who shall wilfully or maliciously 
injure any telegraph pole or wire thereof, upon conviction, shall 
be imprisoned in the state prison not more than two years, or 
fined not exceeding five hundred dollars, and imprisoned in the 
county jail not less than three, nor more than six months.” 


SECTION XXII. 

THE LOCAL CIRCUIT. 

Of what is the local circuit composed l —Chiefly of three parts. 

ist. The metals and liquids of the local battery. 

2d. The armature lever of the relay and its frame, and the 
helices of the register or sounder. % 

3d. Wires connecting these instruments and the battery. 

What kind of wire is used for this circuit ? —Copper usually, 
because it conducts better than iron wire of equal size and is 
sufficiently strong for this purpose, strength not being needed as 
it is on the main line. As covered copper wire is usually used 
always be sure to bare the ends where the connections are made. 

How is the local circuit insulated? —Its wires are usually covered 
with some non-conducting substance as silk, cotton, or gutta 
percha, and the various parts of the instruments upon it are in- 



TELEGRAPHY. 


Ill 


sulated as far as is necessary by being set in dry wood, or other 
non-conductor. 

How many battery cells are used on a local circuit ?—Two gen¬ 
erally, though one often is sufficient. 

What is the extent of this circuit l —Usually but a few feet, 
from battery to instrument; but in large offices the batteries are 
kept in a room by themselves, and then circuits leading to in¬ 
struments are necessarily longer. 

State the course of the local current. —Starting from the battery 
it continues along the wire, through the armature lever of the 
relay and its frame, and the helices of the register or sounder, 
then back to the battery, and so on. 


SECTION XXIII. 


THE KEY. 



Fig. 6. 

What instrument is employed in transmitting messages ?—The 

key—Fig. 6. 

What is the key ?—A contrivance for opening and closing a 
voltaic circuit at pleasure. 


























































I I 2 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Describe its construction. —It is made in a great variety of 
forms, as is every telegraphic instrument. But its essential parts 
are two metallic conductors insulated from each other, and a 
movable bar called the key lever, mounted upon a steel trunnion 
turning between two adjustable pivots, or set-screws. The 
frame and lever usually constitutes one of these conductors, and 
the other is a small metallic piece passing through this frame 
and separated from it by bone, rubber, or other non-conductor. 

With what are these conductors connected ? —One with one 
part and one with the other part of the main circuit. 

How are they related to the key lever ? —The lever is so situ¬ 
ated that it always connects with one of them, and may by a 
slight movement connect also with the other, thus joining the 
two and closing the circuit. 

How is this accomplished ? —By means of two platinum pieces 
called the hammer and anvil. The hammer is attached to the 
lever and so connects with one part of the key; the anvil is 
immediately below this and attached to the other part of the 
key. When the lever is depressed these pieces are brought 
into contact, and the circuit is closed. 

How is the circuit opened again ? —By a spring which raises 
the key lever as soon as the pressure is removed 

What is the circuit closer ? —A movable bar so situated that it 
may be made to establish a permanent communication between 
the separated parts of the key, and should always be closed 
when the operator is not using the key. 

What else is the key provided with ? —Set screws for the pur¬ 
pose of regulating its play to suit the hand of the operator, and 
regulate also the pressure of the spring beneath the lever for 
the same purpose. The lever is also provided with a knob or 
button of hard rubber, which the operator grasps in sending. 

How is the key fastened to the tablet —By means of long 


TELEGRAPHY. 


1T 3 

screws, which also hold the ends of the wires, one connected 
with the base, the other with the other part of the key, passing 
through and insulated from the base. 

If the points in the key stick fail to break circuit what is the 
remedy ? —To rub them gently with a very fine file, or draw be¬ 
tween them a strip of hard clean paper or emery paper. 

If a key sticks , does it viterfere with both sender and receiver ?— 
It does; for the key opens and breaks the main circuit. 

What causes a key to stick ? —This may be attributed to various 
causes, the principal one, probably, being the effect of the re¬ 
peated action of the electric spark which passes between the 
points every time the current is broken, or it may be caused by 
metallic dust which accumulates on the points, or through im¬ 
proper adjustment the points do not come squarely together. 

What precautions should be observed regarding the key ?— 
The pivot, or set screws, should always be kept sufficiently 
tight to prevent trouble, and the spring in connection with, and 
beneath the lever, should always connect with the base. 



Fig. 7. 


Have any improvements been made in telegraph keys ?■ —Keys, 
distinguished by new and desirable features, designed for dura¬ 
bility and rapid sending, have rapidly multiplied within the past 
few years, among which may be prominently mentioned the 
Gumming “periphery contact” key, the Bunnell steel lever 




COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


114 

solid trunnion key, the Phillips key, and more recently the 
“ Victor key ” 

The former, as seen in Fig. 7, is the same as an ordinary key 
in all respects, except in substituting for the ordinary platinum 
points two little discs with rounded platinum wire tires set at 
right angles to each other, so that the impinging point is a mere 
dot or needle point of surface The inventor claiming as a 
scientific discovery that the smallest surface of contact is the 
best and only perfect form for electrodes. This opinion seems 
to be well founded, as the diminished area of metal in contact 
appears to offer no extra resistance whatever to the passage of 
the current above that encountered with an ordinary key. The 
fineness of the contact enables the key to be worked in a very 
close adjustment without “ sticking;” even, it is claimed, to the 
one one-thousandth of an inch play under an intense dynamo 
current. Such close adjustment necessarily implies fast trans¬ 
mission, with the least fatigue to the sender, and thus the jar 
consequent on considerable ‘"play” is entirely avoided. It is 
endorsed by experts and the inventor has been awarded medals 
by many international and state expositions. Whatever else may 
be said of its merits it certainly recommends itself as an extremely 
economical form for wear, each disc having a reserve on its 
periphery, equal to at least one hundred ordinary points. 



Fig. 8. 


The Bunnell steel lever key is regarded as a great improve¬ 
ment on the old style of telegraph key, but is somewhat similar 
in appearance. Fig. 8 represents a legless pattern of this key. 















TELEGRAPHY. 


Ir 5 

The improvement, however, possesses much merit, which con¬ 
sists in the fact that the entire lever and trunnion together are 
comprised of one piece of steel made only one half the weight 
of the ordinary brass lever. The common defect of loose trun¬ 
nions is thus avoided, and its lightness, size, and proportions 
combining strength and neatness, with the use of hardened 
platina points, well adapts it for easy and rapid sending, and is 
very extensively used on the different telegraph lines. 

The Phillips key, as constructed, is claimed to prevent “ stick¬ 
ing.” Its chief merits consist in substituting hardened steel 
points for the ordinary platinum points. The lower point is re¬ 
movable, and can be readily cleaned when discolored, while new 
points can be substituted for the old ones, as occasion may re¬ 
quire, without removing the key from the table or disturbing its 
adjustments in any manner whatsoever. 



The Victor key , Fig. 9, is probably the most radical change in 
the style of the key, and consists of a light steel lever set in the 
frame the entire width of the base, forming a good connection 
with the latter, and at the same time producing an easy motion 
directly up and down without side motion, dispensing altogether 
with trunnions and the back adjusting screw, the play of the 
lever being regulated by turning the knob. The top bearing of 
the lever spring is above the fulcrum of the lever, which admits 













COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


116 

of extra light or stiff adjustment of the spring without destroying 
its elasticity. 

SECTION XXIV. 


THE RELAY. 



Fig. ro. 


What is the relay in Morse's telegraph ?—An instrument, 
whose office is to connect the main and local circuits, in such a 
manner, that the opening and closing of the former, opens and 
closes the latter.—Fig. io. 

Does the relay cause any communication of electricity between 
the two circuits l—It does not. It establishes between them a 
mechanical and not an electrical connection. 

What are the essential parts of the relay ?— 

i st. Two helices of insulated wire enclosing two bars of 
soft iron connected by a yoke, or the two ends of one bar bent 
in the form of a U magnet, called the cores. 

2d. A soft iron armature attached to a movable lever and 
situated near the ends of the soft iron bar or bars. 

3d. Two platinum points, so situated, one of them being 
fixed upon the movable lever, and the other to the frame, that 
the movements of that lever may separate or unite them. 

State the electrical connections of the different parts of the relay. 
—Its helices connect with, and form part of the main circuit. 




















TELEGRAPHY. 


117 

The platinum points connect similarly with the local circuit. 

How is the distance regulated through which the armature lever 
moves l —By two adjustable set screws, supported by a metal 
frame running up from the base, one of them checking the mo¬ 
tion toward the magnet, and the other limiting the reverse move¬ 
ment, in which case it is necessary that the point of the set 
screw, checking the backward movement, be made of some insu¬ 
lating material, such as hard rubber or bone, in order to open 
the local circuit when the lever falls back. 

Explain the action of the relay. —When a current traverses 
the main circuit it passes through the relay helices, and trans¬ 
forms the soft iron bars within them into electro magnets ; the 
latter then attract the armature which thus moves the armature 
lever and brings the platinum points into contact, closing the 
local circuit. 

When the main current ceases, the electro-magnets cease to 
attract the armature, which is then thrown back by a spring, 
separating the platinum points and opening the local circuit. 

Should the ari?iature be brought into contact with the poles of 
the magnets ?—It should not, for the residual magnetism would 
then prevent its being thrown back when the main current 
ceased. However, when the current is very feeble, adjust the 
armature as close to the magnets as possible without contact. 

How is this prevented ?—By the screws which regulate the 
play of the armature in either direction. In most instruments 
the magnet itself is also thrown forward or backward by a 
screw near the yoke, so as to accommodate its position to that 
of the armature. 

What is the adjuster l —A contrivance for regulating the ten¬ 
sion of the spring which draws back the armature, is capable 
of extension, and may be fastened in any required position by a 
set screw. 


n8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


How is the lower end of the armature lever arranged? —It is 
mounted upon a steel arbor turning between two adjustable set 
screws, the latter being mounted upon standards projecting from 
the lower part of the frame, or a piece of metal with upright 
standards attached to the base. 

Upon what kind of base are the various parts of the instrunie?it 
attached ?—Upon a base of dry hard wood, or of some other 
non-conductor. 

What is the distance through which the a?'?nature lever should 
move ?—The distance should be very small, never to exceed 
one thirty-second of an inch, and when the movement of the 
lever is very feeble, it should be made as small as possible. 

State in brief the object of the relay. —Although powerful bat¬ 
teries be used on an ordinary line, the great resistance offered 
by so many miles of wire, reduces the strength of the current 
to such an extent that but a weak magnet can be produced, and 
the addition of other batteries and instruments in a certain man¬ 
ner becomes a necessity. 

Explain the operation of the additional instrument. —The arma¬ 
ture of the relay having a motion precisely like that of the key, 
is converted into one connected with the local battery, and works 
an instrument called the sounder, in the same manner that the 
key effects the relay. The movement of the armature is feeble, 
but powerful enough to open and close the local, which, on 
account of the little resistance in so few feet of wire, operates 
the sounder with many times the force of the armature. 

Does the current from the local batteries at way stations exert 
any influence on the main line ?—It must be distmctly understood, 
that the main and the local currents never touch each other, 
and that the local exerts no influence whatever on the main. 

What is the only substance in contact with the two circuits ?— 
The air and the wooden base—both of these non-conductors. 

If the points in a relay “stick” fail to break the local ci?cuit, 
what is the remedy ? —The same as that for the key. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


II 9 

If a relay “sticks,” does it interfere with both sender and re¬ 
ceiver? —No; it troubles only the office where that relay is 
located. 

Why is platinum used for the points of the key and relay ?— 
Because it does not readily fuse or tarnish. 

What is platinum ? —Platinum is a metal the color of silver, 
but less bright. It is the heaviest and least expansible of the 
metals, is harder than iron, is very ductile, undergoes no altera¬ 
tion in air, and resists the action of acids. 

Where is it found ? —Platinum is found in alluvial districts, in 
the debris of the earliest volcanic rocks, on the slopes of the 
Ural mountains in Russia, in Brazil, Santo Domingo, Borneo, 
Ceylon, California, British Columbia, and Australia. It is 
generally found in sands like gold obtained from what are 
termed placer diggings. Although almost always in small grains, 
it has been found in masses of considerable size. The largest 
mass ever found weighs twenty-one pounds troy, and is in the 
Demidoff gallery. The grain of native platinum usually con¬ 
tains from 75 to 85 per cent, of pure metal. It is generally 
found in rounded grains, like placer gold, and sometimes crys- 
talized in octahedrons. 

Does it effect the line to move the arjnature lever back a?idforth 
with the finger ? —No; as the lever is not connected with the 
main line, it only serves as the key to operate the sounder. 

What is the standard resistance of the relay used for ordinary 
lines ? —150 ohms. 

What should be the resistance of all the relays on a line to give 
the best results ? —Their combined resistance should equal the 
resistance of the line and battery. 

Should instrmnents of different resistance be used on the same 
H ne ? —No; every instrument in the same circuit should have the 
same resistance. 


120 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Are all relays made si?nilar to the one herein describedl —No; 
they differ somewhat in form, though the principle is the same. 
However, another form of relay, called the Siemen’s “ polarized 
relay,” is much used in Europe, and to some extent in this 
country, on special systems. 





































































TELEGRAPHY. 


121 


What is the polarized relay ? —The polarized relay is regarded 
as an improvement on the ordinary Morse relay, particularly 
as it does not require any adjustable spring as a retractile force, 
and on this account is exceedingly sensitive, the armature 
being either a permanent magnet or is inductively magnetized 
by permanent magnets. Its essential parts consist of a steel 
magnet bent to a right angle—one end being a north pole and 
the other a south pole. On the end that lies flat, soft iron cores 
and the wire coils or helices of an upright electro-magnet are 
fixed, whilst at the extreme end of the upright part of the steel 
magnet, a soft iron bar is pivoted, which operates as the relay 
lever and armature, turning horizontally on its pivot, the motion 
of the lever being limited by a metallic screw on one side and by 
an agate stud on the other. Fig n shows the Siemen’s polar¬ 
ized relay with improved swivel adjustments. 


SECTION XXV. 

THE REGISTER AND SOUNDER. 



Fig. 12.—The Sounder. 

What instruments are employed in receiving messages l —The 

register and sounder. 






































122 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Wherein do they differ ?—In the fact that the former, pro¬ 
vided with clock work and recording apparatus, records the mes¬ 
sages upon slips of paper, while the latter does not, the click of 
the instrument indicating the message to the ear of the opera¬ 
tor. 

What are the essential parts of the sounder l —Two upright 
electro-magnets and a soft iron armature attached to a movable 
lever situated near the ends of the soft iron cores. See Fig. 12. 

Jdow is the distance regulated through which the armature lever 
moves l —By two adjustable screws, one of them checking the 
movement toward the magnet, and the other limiting the reverse 
movement. 

Should the armature be brought into cotitact with the poles of the 
magnet l —The same truth applies to the sounder magnet and 
its armature as in the relay; the armature must never come so 
near the poles of the magnet that one thickness of ordinary 
writing paper will not pass between them. 

What else is necessary to regulate the movement of the armature? 
—A light spiral spring attached to the armature, which must be 
adjusted so that the current will overcome the force of the 
spring, or, in other words, adjusted in proportion to the strength 
of the current. If drawn too tightly, it will not allow the arma¬ 
ture to respond to the attraction of the magnet. It should only 
be set at sufficient tension to raise the lever sharply back against 
its top limit screw when no current is passing through the mag¬ 
nets. When the sounder is once adjusted and gives a satisfact¬ 
ory sound it should be let alone . If the sounder has always 
worked well, but at length gives some indications of residual 
magnetism in the cores, reverse the wires. 

In what respects besides those already meaitioned do the register 
and sounder resemble the relay? —In them as in the relay, the 
armature must be kept from contact with the electro-magnets, in 
order to avoid the effects of residual magnetism; also, an ad- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


I23 


juster is necessary in each instrument to regulate the tension of 
the spring attached to the armature lever. 

What is the standard resistance of the sounder ? —4 ohms. 

Are all sounders made alike l —They are made in a variety of 
forms (the principle, however, being the same) the kind em¬ 
ployed in any particular case depending upon circumstances. 
Some operators can distinguish a light sound more clearly than 
a heavier one, and vice versa. 

Should the sounder be screwed down to the tablet —Yes; as the 
acoustic vibrations are thus communicated to the latter, which 
acts as a sounding-board and thence to the ear. 

What a?e the advantages of operating by sound ?—There is 
less difficulty in adjusting the instrument, and business is done 
more rapidly and with less liability to error. 

Note.—T he operation of the register is not explained, as it is not now in 
general use, having been superseded by the sounder. 


SECTION XXVI. 

THE BOX RELAY OR MAIN LINE SOUNDER. 



Fig. 13. — Box Sounding Relay and Key.—Combination Set. 


























































































124 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


What is the box relay or main line sounder ?—An instrument 
worked direct by the main line current similar to the relay (often 
with a key attached) for increasing the sound of the armature, 
thus dispensing with the local circuit. (See Fig. 13.) 

How does it differ from the ordinary relay ?—In having a more 
powerful electro-magnet, and the sound increased by allowing 
the armature lever to strike upon the screw-point attached to the 
wooden box which encloses the magnets. 

Can this instrument be substituted for an ordinary relay l — 
Yes; when having local circuit connections. 

What is the pocket relay or small main line sounder l —A small 
relay or main line sounder constructed in a convenient and 
compact form, with a key attached, the whole arrangement 
placed in a small hard rubber case convenient to carry in the 
pocket. 

What are these portable instruments used for ?—They are much 
used by line repairers, and operators in the military service, and 
also in the railway telegraph service for establishing a temporary 
office at points where the track has been obstructed by accident. 

What contrivances besides the essential parts named belong to 
the instruments previously described l —Screws for regulating the 
play and bearings of movable parts, and binding screws to re¬ 
ceive the circuit wires, connecting with the movable parts by 
wires running beneath the base. 

How many of the latter has each instrument ? —Two, except¬ 
ing the relay, which has four, because it connects with two 
circuits. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


125 


SECTION XXVII. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE MORSE APPARATUS-ADJUSTMENT AND 

CARE OF THE INSTRUMENTS. 

What is the arrangement of the Morse apparatus i?i an office ? 
—The apparatus comprising sounder or register, relay, key, 
switch, local battery and connections, are conveniently arranged 
as follows: A table having been provided for the purpose, the 
sounder or register is placed in the center, the key on the right, 
and the relay on the left, at the rear of the table. The switch 
or cut-out (see Section XXXII.) is secured in an upright posi¬ 
tion on the wall or any convenient location. The key is fixed 
in position by boring holes through the table for its legs; holes 
are also bored through the table near the binding screws of the 
relay and sounder, for the connecting wires. 

How are the instruments connected in circuit ?—The line wires 
are extended into the office by means of insulated copper lead¬ 
ing-in wires, which are led to the proper binding screws, usually 
at the top of the switch. At a terminal office, however, only 
one wire comes in for each line, thence from the switch to the 
main battery and ground. From the switch one of the instru¬ 
ment wires is led to one leg of the key and secured, and the 
other to one of the relay binding screws, which is usually at the 
right hand end of the relay. The main circuit is then com¬ 
pleted by running a short wire from the remaining right hand 
relay binding screw to the other leg of the key. The order of the 
connections is indifferent. The local battery, usually consisting 
of two cells, should be placed not too far from the instrument in 
a dry and warm location convenient of access, in a box or on a 
shelf of a closet. After setting up a local battery run a cov¬ 
ered wire from one of the binding screws of the sounder to one 


126 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


pole of the battery, then another wire from the other pole of 
the battery to one of the left hand binding screws of the relay, 
and from the remaining binding screw of the relay to the re¬ 
maining binding screw of the sounder, thus completing the local 
circuit. The order of the connections is indifferent in this cir¬ 
cuit also. Care must be taken, however, to properly connect 
together the battery cells, and also to bare the ends of the cov¬ 
ered wire wherever a connection is made in either circuit. 

What is the arrangement of the apparatus in large offices ?— 
In most of the large offices the different sets of apparatus are 
placed in groups of four upon “quartette tables,” that is tables 
conveniently arranged for four sets of instruments, each section 
separated from the other by a low plate glass partition or 
screen. A group of four pairs of instrument wires extend from 
the switch to each table and a second group of four pairs of 
local wires extend from each table to a group of four distinct 
local batteries in the battery room. These wires are insulated, 
and either laid up in cables bound with tarred tape, or placed in 
proper shape beneath the floor. 

How many offices can be operated in the same circuit ?— As 

many as thirty or forty intermediate offices are sometimes oper¬ 
ated in this manner on a single circuit, but twenty or thirty in¬ 
struments is probably as many as should be placed in a single 
circuit to work advantageously. 

ADJUSTMENT AND THE CARE OF INSTRUMENTS. 

What is the most important duty connected with the manage- 
me?it of instruments ? —Adjusting the relay. 

What is meant by adjusting the relay ? —Tempering the spring 
connected to the armature according to the strength of, and 
variation in the current. In most of instruments the magnet 
itself can also be moved forward and backward by a screw, thus 
adjusting its position to that of the armature according to the 
strength of the current, a strong current requiring the magnet to 


TELEGRAPHY. 


127 


be drawn farther away from the armature, and a feeble current 
the reverse. 

What are the terms applied to adjusting?—High and low ad¬ 
justment according to the strength of the current, a strong cur¬ 
rent requiring a tightening of the spring, high adjustment and a 
weak current the reverse. 

Under what circumstances is adjusting the most difficult and 
perplexing ?—In wet or damp weather, especially during thunder¬ 
storms. Variations in the current constantly occur, and when a 
line is imperfectly insulated, or in case of a cross, or when an 
escape is a swinging one, that is, when a wire keeps swinging 
against another or against a tree, or other conductor, but re¬ 
maining in contact only a short time, sometimes the slightest 
variation from a certain point in either direction will cause the 
instrument to cease working, and require very careful adjust¬ 
ment; under such circumstances, the operator is frequently re¬ 
quired to keep hold of the screw regulating the spring, turning 
first one way and then the other nearly all the time he is either 
sending or receiving, 

Jf a telegraph line was perfectly insulated , or in the case of dry, 
cold weather, would this change in adjustment be necessary ? —No; 
as the strength of the current would be the same at the most 
distant point from the battery that it is at a point close to it. In 
short, it would be the same at every point in the circuit. 

In wet and damp weather what point on a line is the current 
the strongest? —Near the battery, because a considerable portion 
of the current leaks over the insulators and through the poles, 
and returns to the battery without traversing the entire line. 
This explains why the armature is adjusted farther from the 
magnet in wet weather and on long lines. When the distant 
operator opens his key there is still considerable current from the 
battery going out through the relay and returning over the wet 
insulators and through the poles along the line. By setting the 


128 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


armature so far off that the partial current will not work it, the 
signals when the distant operator closes his key are super¬ 
posed upon this current, «as it were, and are easily received. 

Does adjusting the relay in one office have any influence upon 
the instruments in other offices ? —No, as the armature lever is not 
connected with the main line. 

Is the local circuit subject to the fluctuations of the mam line ?— 
No. The local battery simply grows weak by use when it has 
to be renewed. The spring on the arm of the local (sounder) 
magnet merely requires weakening, as the battery working it be¬ 
comes exhausted. 

When there is trouble on the local circuit, how may an operator 
know that it exists on the local instead of the main l —By the 

failure of the sounder to respond freely in unison with the lever 
of the relay, when that lever is moved back and forth with the 
finger. 

What should always be done before opening a key ? —Operators 

should never open the key without first turning the relay ad¬ 
justing spring high enough to break the local circuit, in order to 
make sure that no one else is using the line : and on calling 
another office, to have the relay so adjusted as to receive the 
response. It is well to keep adjusted for the most distant office 
in wet weather. 

What instrument may be used to advantage ? —The galvano- 
scope, or small ordinary compass. When placed upon the relay 
helices the slightest current may be detected. 

“ When the line is being worked, the needle of the compass 
is agitated, and when the circuit is closed or open it 'remains 
perfectly quiet. An operator noticing the agitation of the needle, 
even if there was not sufficient tension upon the armature of the 
relay to cause it to respond, would be aware that some office 
was using the line, and thus avoid breaking in unnecessarily.” 

What is the duty of operators in regard to binding screws in in - 


TELEGRAPHY. 


i 29 

struments and switches ?—They should be examined and tight¬ 
ened up daily, as they are liable to loosen by the warping of the 
wood, jar of passing trains, etc. Instruments should be covered 
at night and kept free from dust. 


SECTION XXVIII. 

THE REPEATER. 

What is the repeater ?—It is an instrument designed to trans¬ 
fer a message directly from one circuit to another, thus avoiding 
the necessity of its being re-written by an operator. 

How does it connect the circuits upon which it is employed ? —It 

establishes between them a mechanical connection of such a 
nature that one circuit by opening and closing opens and closes 
the other automatically, upon the same principle that the relay 
operates the local. If there is sufficient power to deflect a 
magnetic needle in a perceptible degree on one line this can 
be made to open and close a circuit by which a fresh, powerful 
current will be set in motion on another. 

Does it cause any communication of electricity between the two 
circuits ? —It does not. 

Why is it necessary to use the repeater l —Owing to the resist¬ 
ance and defects of insulation, it is found impossible to work 
very long lines during all states of our variable weather, there¬ 
fore shorter circuits have been resorted to, and when it is desired 
to work the lines through to places beyond the limits of a single 
circuit, it is done by means of an arrangement known as the 
“button repeater,” or the peculiar arrangement of instruments 
and circuits, often very complicated in its structure, known as 
the “automatic repeater.” When employed in an office entered 
by several lines, it is so arranged with switches as to connect 
any two lines desired. 



130 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


For what other purpose is the repeater used 1 —It is used to 
connect a number of branch lines with the main line for the 
purpose of transmitting press and market reports to several 
places simultaneously. All stations in connection are thus 
enabled to communicate with each other as readily as if situated 
upon the same circuit. 

Explain the arrangement of the “button repeater —The ar¬ 
rangement known as Wood’s “button repeater” is probably the 
one most generally used, the operation of which is controlled by 
a simple double action switch or button, and consequently needs 
the constant attention of an attendant, as it can only be worked 
from one direction and from the other, by turning the switch. 
The armature levers of the sounders on both lines are provided 
with platinum contact points, similar to the relay, so that the 
lever on each sounder forms in effect a key for opening and 
closing the circuit of the other line. These circuits being in 
connection with the switch, the signal of one line is transferred 
to the other and vice versa , at pleasure, by merely changing the 
position of the switch. When either sounder fails to work co-in¬ 
cident with the other, the button should be instantly turned, 
thus permitting the receiver’to break, or become in his turn the 
sender. When it is desired to connect the two circuits into one 
through circuit, it is only necessary to open the ground switch, 
thus throwing off the ground connection. 

Edison’s “ button repeater ” is probably the most simple ar¬ 
rangement of connections and apparatus, as only the ordinary 
office instruments and an ordinary two point ground switch is 
required. To set it up, the line, say from the west, is connected 
first with its own relay; thence it passes to one of the points 
of the ground switch, and through the opposite relay points to 
ground. The other line is similarly connected; the main post 
of the ground switch is then connected with one pole of the 
local battery; the other pole of the local battery connects with 
the sounder, passing from the second binding screw of the 


TELEGRAPHY. 


131 

sounder to the wire which connects the two sets of relay points 
with the ground. The sounder and local battery form a portion 
of both local and main circuits. 

When the button switch is turned on to the point which 
touches the eastern circuit, the eastern circuit repeats into the 
western, while the western relay works the sounder, and vice versa. 

Note.—T he above description of Edison’s "button repeater" may be found 
in " Lockwood’s Notes and Queries,” and also in “Pope’s Modern Practice," 
and a description and diagram in " Davis and Rae’s" excellent and most valu¬ 
able handbook of electrical diagrams and connections of all the various re¬ 
peaters in use at the present time. 

What automatic repeaters are now most generally used ? —The 

Milliken automatic repeater, invented by G. F. Milliken, of 
Boston, is probably much more used at the present day than 
any other, having been adopted by the Western Union Telegraph 
Company as their standard. The others used to some con¬ 
siderable extent are the “ Toyes,” “ Haskins,” “ Bunnell,” and 
the “Smith.” 

j Explain the principle and arrangement of the Milliken repeater. 
—The principle of this repeater is, that by a novel arrangement 
or application of the auxiliary local magnet, first introduced by 
Clark, and placed above and in front of the relay magnets, the 
armature lever of which, when drawn back by its spring against 
the lever of the relay with which it is placed in mechanical 
combination, prevents the movement of the latter, when the 
main circuit through the relay is broken. The adjustment of 
these auxiliary local magnets, and of their armature springs be¬ 
ing entirely independent from that of the relays, it is only 
necessary that such springs be actually and relatively stronger 
than those of the relays with which they are mechanically com¬ 
bined. By this means “ false breaks,” arising from any required 
tension of the relay springs on the receiving side of the re¬ 
peater are effectually prevented. The relays are placed in the 
main circuits, which connect the batteries and earth, and through 


132 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


the repeating points of the opposite sounders respectively. The 
local sounder magnets are each operated by the relay on the 
same side; the auxiliary local magnets are operated respectively 
by the movement of the opposite sounder levers. If either re¬ 
lay makes a false break, or “ kicks ” when the opposite side is 
writing, pull upon the spring of the extra local armature. Ex¬ 
perience, however, shows that the armatures of the auxiliary 
local magnets need adjustment but seldom, if the local batteries 
are in good working condition. The relays of the repeater are 
managed in exactly the same manner as an ordinary relay. The 
sounder levers should have about the usual amount of play, but 
the tension of the retracting springs of the sounders should be 
very moderate, only a little more than enough to raise the arma¬ 
ture when released by the magnet. When working most 
efficiently the apparatus usually has what may be termed a drag¬ 
ging sound. If the relays are properly adjusted the opposite side 
will always be able to break without difficulty, especially if the 
circuit is opened for about two seconds, as it should be, by the 
receiving operator.— Prescott's Electricity arid the Elect?'ic Tele¬ 
graph. 

In the operations of repeaters what precautions should be ob¬ 
served l —In working through one or more repeaters the sending 
must be very firm, and the dots, dashes, and spaces made much 
longer than under ordinary circumstances. The relays should be 
very carefully adjusted, and the repeater levers adjusted to have 
as little motion as possible in order that the signals may go 
through more firmly. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


133 


SECTION XXIX. 

THE DUPLEX. 

The several methods of multiple transmission may properly 
be said to be an outgrowth of the invention in 1850, of Dr. 
Wilhelm Gentl, director of the Austrian State Telegraphs, whose 
invention was immediately followed by the improved methods 
of Treschen, of Hanover, Germany, and Siemens-Halske, of 
Berlin, Prussia; but as the system did not seem advantageous 
at that day, and upon the short lines then used, it fell into dis¬ 
use; and it was not until 1872, when the improvements on the 
Siemens-Halske system was accomplished by Mr. Joseph 
Stearns, of Boston, that a satisfactory system of duplex teleg¬ 
raphy was generally adopted, which was then placed in opera¬ 
tion upon many of the most important lines in the United 
States, that has within the past few years proved of so much 
value in practical telegraphy. 

Name the different methods of multiple transmission. —The 
‘‘duplex” and “quadruplex” methods. All other methods of 
multiple transmission may be embraced in the term “multiplex 
telegraphy.” 

What is duplex telegraphy ?—The method of multiple trans¬ 
mission, by which the capacity of a single wire is doubled, ena¬ 
bling messages to be sent in opposite directions at the same 
time, without interference. 

What principle is duplex telegraphy based upon ? —It is based 
upon the fact, that currents of electricity invariably divide them¬ 
selves through any number of paths that are left open to them 
exactly in proportion to the resistance which the wire offers to 
the current, and by taking advantage of this fact, the effect upon 



134 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


a magnet can be so equalized as to produce a complete neutral¬ 
ity, thus the currents, flowing in opposite directions, are made 
to neutralize each other, and it is this neutralization that is made 
use of in duplex telegraphy. 

How many ways are there of working duplex l —Two, the 
differential and the bridge method. Many inventions of duplex 
telegraphy have, however, been produced from time to time, 
each possessing special features of merit, and are more or less 
used, but the majority of those in use at the present time oper¬ 
ate on the differential principle. 

The duplex system, in some form, is now in general use in nearly every coun¬ 
try in the world, and its use on submarine lines has been quite successful. 

What conditions are necessary to the successful working of 
duplex telegraphy l —“The receiving instrument must be so con¬ 
nected to the line and to the earth, that it shall remain entirely 
unaffected by the movements of the transmitting key at the 
home station, while at the same time it will respond to every 
movement of the key at the distant station.” 

What apparatus is required in the operation of Stearns 1 differ¬ 
ential method ?—In adapting the duplex method to the practical 
requirements of the telegraphic service, some modifications in 
the ordinary apparatus are required. The relay used, termed 
the “ differential relay,” has its helices wound in opposite direc¬ 
tions with two wires of the same resistance and of equal num¬ 
bers of convolutions, so that when equal currents pass through 
them they will exert an equal and opposite magnetic effect upon 
the cores, and thereby neutralize each other. The sending 
sounder, known as the “ transmitter,” is provided with a metallic 
bracket on the extremity of the lever, and also on the same end 
a flat spring mounted with an insulating support, so arranged 
as to come in contact with the bracket when the lever is de¬ 
pressed, and m contact with a screw supported by a standard, 
when the lever is elevated, and an armature near the other end 
of the lever, actuated by an electro magnet, local battery, and an 


TELEGRAPHY. 


135 


ordinary key, so arranged as to be in contact with battery when 
the lever is depressed and with ground when elevated ; one con¬ 
tact always taking place through the spring contrivance before 
the other ceases. Thus the line is never opened but always on 
battery or ground. The transmitter is also made to act as a 
sounder so that the American operator hears the accustomed ac¬ 
companiment of his own sounder when transmitting. The 
ordinary Morse receiving sounder is used, connected with the 
relay and operated by a local battery in the usual manner. A 
rheostat and condenser (see Section XXXIII.) is also used in 
connection with the apparatus, and a resistance, termed a “spark 
coil,” is inserted when a battery of small internal resistance is 
used. A switch conveniently arranged is also used in connec¬ 
tion with the apparatus to change the connections from duplex 
to ordinary working. 

In duplex telegraphy what is the object of the rheostat l —To 
equalize or regulate the resistance of the artificial line to that of 
the main line, including the battery and one wire of the relay at 
the distant office. 

What is the object of the condenser l —To balance or neutralize 
the effect of the return charge, arising from static induction on 
long lines, or when working through a submarine cable, or 
underground wire, which is found to produce a “kick ” or false 
signal the moment battery contact is made or broken, which 
seriously interferes with the operation of the instrument. In 
order to regulate the charge by means of the rheostat, the con¬ 
denser is attached by a wire to a brass plate on the former, which 
is provided with holes for plugs to connect it with the resistance 
coil plates, whereby the condenser charge can be sent through 
any portion of the resistance coils as desired. 

Static discharge can be entirely compensated by the use of an induction coil, 
or a series of electro-magnets, instead of the condenser.— Culley. 

Explain the arrangement of the differential method. —The princi¬ 
ple and general arrangement does not differ materially from that 


136 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


of Frischen, except that the position of the Morse key in the 
circuit is replaced by the transmitter. The differential relay is 
placed in circuit by connecting the outer end of one of the 
magnet wires, to the line wire, and connecting the inner end of 
the other wire to one terminal of the rheostat, the other termi¬ 
nal of which is to earth. The remaining two wires of the relay 
are joined together, and connected to the spring which is carried 
by, but insulated from the lever of the transmitter; this lever is 
connected to earth by a wire in which is placed a resistance 
equal to that of the battery. When the key is open the spring 
and lever are in contact, and together form a part of the circuit 
from the line to the earth. One pole of the battery is connected 
through a standard to the contact screw of the transmitter, and 
the other to earth. One poie of the condenser is usually con¬ 
nected to the wire joining the relay and the rheostat, while the 
other pole is to earth. The apparatus is placed on a table con¬ 
veniently arranged for the purpose, or on tables opposite each 
other or side by side, the transmitter and sending key on one 
table, and on the other the receiving apparatus, including the 
rheostat, condenser, and an extra key in the local circuit opera¬ 
ting the transmitter. The batteries are generally connected, so 
that when both keys are closed at the same time, the currents 
move in the same direction and assist each other, but opposed 
batteries may be used. 

Describe the operation of Stearns ' 1 differential method .—The 
apparatus should first be adjusted in proportion to the line re¬ 
sistance, by removing the plugs in the resistance coils until 
the resistance of the coils equals the resistance of the line. 
When they are equal the armature of the relay will not be 
affected by the working of the transmitter sounder. If the sig¬ 
nals received are too light, the resistance of the rheostat must 
be increased; if too heavy, the resistance decreased. If now 
the key at the home office be depressed, the circuit of the local 
battery will be closed, and the armature of the transmitter at- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


137 


tracted, thereby moving the opposite end of the lever so as to> 
bring the spring in contact with the screw after removing it from 
its previous contact with the bracket, on the extremity of the 
lever. Thus the line is transferred from earth to the battery or 
vice versa without interrupting the circuit. When the key is de¬ 
pressed the current from the battery passes through the contact 
screw and spring to the junction of the two relay wires, where it 
divides into two equal portions, one-half of it going through 
one wire of the relay to and over the line to the distant office, 
thence through one wire of the relay to the junction of the two 
relay wires, thence through the spring lever and resistance coil 
to earth. The other portion of the current passing from the 
junction in an opposite direction through the other wire of the 
relay, and thence through the rheostat to earth. The relay 
being thus acted upon simultaneously by equal and opposing 
currents, will remain entirely unaffected. The distant relay, 
however, will be affected by the current passing over the line, 
and through one only of its wires to the earth, and will produce 
signals corresponding to the movements of the key at the home 
office. 

Should the key at the distant office be depressed, a similar 
action takes place, the current passing from the battery through 
the contact screw and spring of the transmitter, to the junction 
of the relay wires, where it divides, one-half passing through 
one wire of the relay and over the line, combining with the cur¬ 
rent from the home office, and the other half returning to the 
earth through the other wire of the relay and rheostat, thus each 
relay is unaffected by the current from the battery at its own 
office, but responds to the current from the battery at the other 
office. Whatever may be the position of the key or transmitter 
lever at either office, the resistance presented both to the outgo¬ 
ing and incoming currents at each office must be the same, 
hence resistance coils are placed in the wires connecting the 


138 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


levers with the earth, and their resistance made equal to that of 
the batteries at their respective offices. 

When the coyidenser has an electro-static capacity greater than 
that of the line wire , how may its effect upon the relay be reduced l 
—By including a portion of the resistance of the compensating 
circuit between the relay and the point at which the condenser 
is attached to the rheostat. The latter being so arranged as to 
afford a ready means of connecting the condenser between any 
two coils. In making up the necessary resistance in any case, 
as many as possible of the low numbers should be interposed 
between the relay and the point where the condenser is con¬ 
nected. 

How may a condenser of much s?naller capacity than the line be 
usedl —By inserting a resistance between the relay and the line, 
the resistance of the compensating circuit being correspond¬ 
ingly increased, and the condenser connected close to the relay. 
If the resistance is made considerable, the battery power may be 
increased, which will cause the condenser to take a higher 
charge. 

What apparatus is required i?i the operation of Stearns' bridge 
method l —This method permits the use of the ordinary ap- 
paratus arranged in combination with the “transmitter” resis¬ 
tance coils, “rheostat,” and a suitably arranged condenser. 

What is the principle upon which this method is constructed and 
operatedl —It is based upon the principle of the Wheatstone 
bridge or balance, that when a current is divided between two 
circuits, which are connected by a cross wire or bridge, no cur¬ 
rent will pass through the bridge, provided the resistance of the 
opposite circuits on each side are equal, or are in the same ratio 
to each other. 

Describe the arrangement of the bridge method. —In this method 
the arrangement of circuits is such that the relay is placed in 
the bridge or cross wire of the Wheatstone bridge or balance. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


139 


The line, together with the earth, constitutes one side of the 
balance, the rheostat and condenser the opposite side, and the 
two branch circuits in which are placed adjustable resistances 
the other side. 

Describe the operation of the bridge method. —The action of 
the arrangement is similar to that of the differential. Neither 
instrument is affected by outgoing currents, so long as the re¬ 
sistances of the line and artificial resistances are equal. The 
battery is connected through the transmitter to the point where 
the circuits diverge, forming the two arms of the balance, the 
outgoing current dividing, one half going through the resistance 
coil of one arm, thence to and through the rheostat to earth. 
The other half going through the resistance coil of the other arm 
of the balance, thence over the line to the distant office, where 
it divides, one portion going through the bridge wire and relay, 

thence through the resistance coil of one arm and by the spring 
and lever of the transmitter and resistance coil to earth ; the 
other portion going through the resistance coil of the other arm, 
where it joins that portion of the current passing through the 
receiving instrument, thence to earth, as already described. 
Thus when a current is transmitted from the home office, it 
passes directly to the line, without passing through the receiving 
instrument at that office, this instrument or relay lesponding 
only to the currents transmitted from the distant office. The 
condenser is connected with the rheostat as in the “ differential” 
and used for the same purpose. 

Which method of duplex is preferred , the differential or bridge ? 
—Although the bridge method has the advantage of being 
worked with no alternation of ordinary apparatus, and is less 
liable to injury by lightning, the resistances more quickly and 
easily adjusted, and the neutralizing effect of the condenser upon 
the relay, more conveniently adjustable to the varying condi¬ 
tions of the line, yet the “differential” method is preferable for 


140 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


long circuits, as it gives a stronger working current. However, 
the bridge method is preferable on short lines of low resistance, 
especially where batteries with low internal resistances are used. 

If the line or cable be of considerable length it will receive and give up its 
charge more slowly than the condensers, and to make the discharge equal in 
duration as well as amount, resistance should be introduced between the con¬ 
denser and the branch circuit. 

Can the duplex method be arranged as a repeater ? —Yes. 

What is the arrangement of the duplex repeater ? —The 
Stearns differential method is more generally used. The re¬ 
peating being done by the relays. The only modification neces¬ 
sary is to connect the local circuit of the relays and receiving 
sounders, to the magnets of the opposite transmitters, which 
may be done by means of a switch arranged for the purpose. 


SECTION XXX. 

THE QUADRUPLEX. 

The quadruplex method has been brought to great perfection 
in this country, and the use of the duplex method described in 
the previous section has been largely superseded by the quadru¬ 
plex. 


What is quadruplex telegraphy l —The facility of transmitting 
four messages on one wire in contrary directions. 

Explain the principle of quadruplex telegraphy ? —The princi¬ 
ple consists in combining together two distinct and unlike meth¬ 
ods of single transmission in such a manner that they may be 
carried on independently upon the same wire and at the same 
time, without interfering with each other, viz: In working one 
apparatus with reverse currents, independent of their strength, 
and the other apparatus, with strong currents independent of 
their direction, the two distinct qualities of the current, polarity 




TELEGRAPHY. 


141 

and strength being utilized, forming a practical system of simul¬ 
taneous transmission in the same direction, capable of being du¬ 
plexed. The application of one or more of the existing duplex 
combinations in use, forming the quadruplex apparatus, appli¬ 
cable to long lines, hence it is, in fact, a double duplex system. 

What i?nportant practical advantage does this 7 nethodpossess ?— 
The action of the two receiving relays are perfectly independent 
of each other. They actuate different sounders, and are sepa¬ 
rately under the control of their own receiving operator, who can 
thus adjust to suit himself, thus making it practically possible to 
transmit four messages at the same time on a single wire. Any 
of the different methods of simultaneous transmission in oppo¬ 
site directions in use may be applied to it, as a practical system 
of quadruplex transmission. Although the bridge method was 
employed with the earlier combined systems, as being best 
adapted to the conditions necessary for success, the differential 
is now more generally employed. 

When and by whom was the quadruplex system devised l —In 
the summer of 1874, by Mr. Thomas Edison, while engaged 
in conjunction with Mr. George Prescott, electrician of the 
Western Union Telegraph company at New York, in experi¬ 
menting on the Stearns duplex apparatus, with a view of intro¬ 
ducing certain modifications and improvements. 

To who771 is due the prese 7 it perfection of the apparatus ?—To 
Mr. Gerrett Smith, the assistant electrician of the Western 
Union Telegraph company, who, by his labor and inventive 
genius, has introduced nearly, if not quite all, of the improve¬ 
ments and modifications from the original Edison-Prescott quad¬ 
ruplex, which has so much increased its usefulness. 

Describe the 77iechanical and electrical construction of the quadru¬ 
plex apparatus .—In the improved system of quadruplex the dif¬ 
ferential method is in general employed throughout, instead of 
the bridge. The apparatus is placed in position on a quartette 


142 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


table, so arranged that the senders occupy the left, and the re¬ 
ceivers the right, opposite each other. 

Keys .—Two ordinary keys are placed in the proper local 
circuit, which operate their respective transmitter, four keys in 
all, the two extra ones for the use of the receiving operators to 
break or ask for corrections, the senders knowing when they are 
so used by their transmitting relay failing to respond to the key. 

The unproved double current transmitter, or pole changer .— 
This apparatus, which reverses the direction of the currents, is 
extremely simple and yet capable of the most accurate adjust¬ 
ments, so that the current of one polarity does not cease until 
that of the opposite polarity commences. 

The lever of the transmitter is connected with the earth. 
The pole changing apparatus is situated at the extreme end of 
the lever, supported by a post, and consists of two insulated 
contact springs in connection with the zinc and copper poles of 
the main battery respectively. The play of the spring is limited by 
two contact screws which are in connection with the line through 
the post that supports them. To insure successful working the 
transmitter should be carefully adjusted. In its vibration the 
lever should touch one of the springs at the same instant that it 
leaves the other. If the springs are adjusted too far apart there 
will be a break in the circuit as the lever will break contact with 
one spring before it touches the other. If too near together the 
battery will be placed on short circuit too long from one contact 
being made before the other is broken. 

The single current tra?is??iitter .—For altering the strengths of 
the current is the same as employed in the Stearns duplex. The 
play of the lever should be about one thirty-second of an inch 
between the limiting stops and the contact screws, in order to 
work well. 

The co 7 npound polarized relay .—Used to respond to the 
strength of the current whatever their direction, consists of two 


TELEGRAPHY. 


T 43 


single coil electro-magnets wound differentially to a resistance 
of about 200 ohms, arranged with their poles facing each other 
upon opposite sides of a polarized armature. Two screw stops 
regulate the distance of the play of the armature and limit the 
movement of the crank levers in one direction, while two others 
limit it in the other direction. When the tongue of the arma¬ 
ture is in its position of rest it is in contact with both the levers, 
completing the local circuit by putting the local battery on short 
circuit, but when the armature is moved by a current in either 
direction then the short circuit is broken and the current from 
the local battery passes through the coils of the sounder and 
works it. Thus at all times, when the entire force of the batteries 
is on the line, its local circuit is opened by the armature being 
drawn toward and coming in contact with either one or the other 
crank levers, in either case opening the local circuit and work¬ 
ing the sounder by opening , instead of completing, the local cir¬ 
cuit. When, by the depression of the proper key, the battery 
current on the line is decreased or withdrawn, the armature will 
remain in the center in contact with both the crank levers clos¬ 
ing the sounder circuit. Thus the circuit is closed only when a 
weak current, or no current, is on the line, and broken when a 
strong current is sent. On circuits exceeding two hundred miles 
in length the sounder is best operated through the medium of a 
local relay or repeating sounder, in connection with the com¬ 
pound relay, which should be adjusted as close as an ordinary 
relay. 

Adjustment .—The compound relay is the most delicate part 
of the apparatus and requires the most skill in adjusting. The 
electro-magnets should be adjusted by means of the check nuts 
at the back so that their poles are at equal distances from the 
opposite faces of the polarized armature. The play allowed the 
contact levers may be considerably less than that of an ordinary 
relay and the proper tension of the springs depends upon the 
condition of the line current. 


144 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


The single polarized relay .—Used to respond to the changes 
in the current, is a simple polarized relay of the Siemen’s pat¬ 
tern, but fitted with a perfectly rigid tubular tongue, and wound 
differentially, each wire having a resistance of about four hun¬ 
dred ohms, and responds only to the working of the double cur¬ 
rent transmitter, and not acted on by the alteration of the 
strength of the current. Its rigid tongue makes it work equally 
well with every current, whatever its strength. This relay should 
be adjusted with a play about the same as that of the ordinary 
Morse relay. 

The main battery .—Is divided into two divisions, one having 
about three times the cells of the other. There is no rule as 
regards pole to line, as it is a matter of indifference. 

Resistances .—The following resistances are used : A large 
Rheostat for balancing the resistance of the line. A resistance 
for compensating resistance of the large division of the battery. 
A resistance for compensating the resistances of the entire main 
battery thrown in by a switch when the line is nut to earth for 
adjustment on starting to work. A fourth series of coils is also 
used as a spark coil to reduce the effect of the sparks from the 
whole battery, which might otherwise fuse the contact points. 

Condensers .—Are used for the same purpose as employed in 
duplex working, i. e., for compensating the static charge on the 
line. 

On lines of over 500 miles a condenser is also inserted be¬ 
tween the line and compensation wire of the relays for the pur¬ 
pose of bridging over the interval necessary for the current to 
acquire a sufficient difference of potential. 

Quadruplex repeater .—“The arrangement for repeating is very 
simple in principle, and consists in placing the two transmitters 
of one line in the same local circuits with the corresponding 
receiving sounders of the other line. Thus the quadruplex 
system” is capable of considerable extension and variation. It 


TELEGRAPHY. 


145 


works to distances exceeding 1,000 miles by means of repeaters 
fixed about the center of the circuit. Thus New York works 
to St. Louis with repeaters in at Pittsburg, and to Chicago with 
repeaters in at Buffalo. 


Quadruplex working is applied to the type printing instruments as well as to 
the Morse system. When thus applied, however, two sides are used for breaking 
and the exchange of service signals, or for carrying on two separate communica¬ 
tions by the Morse system. 

Can the Moi'se system be arranged to work duplex and quadru¬ 
plex l —Yes; many of the Morse instruments in the principal 
offices are arranged to be worked on the duplex and quadruplex 
systems, as well as in the ordinary way. 

What term is applied to the quadruplex apparatus ? —Quad. 

Is it possible to send more than four messages in opposite directions on a single 
■wire? —In multiple telegraphy the difficulties increase as the cube of the 
number of transmissions are sought. However, Mr. Patrick B. Delany, of New 
York City, has invented an ingenious system, called the “ Delany 
Synchronous-Multiplex System,” founded on the Phonic Wheel of Poul La 
Cour, of Copenhagen, an electric motor, driven by the pulsations of an automatic 
circuit breaker. This motor forms a very important part of the multiplex sys¬ 
tem, as it divides the line into a number of different circuits. By this system it 
is possible to transmit simultaneously, over a single wire, a great number of mes¬ 
sages, either in the same or in opposite directions. This is accomplished by the 
synchronous rotation of two discs placed one at each end of the line, by means of 
which a single wire constituting the line is simultaneously connected, at both of 
its ends, to corresponding operating instruments, and transferred from one set of 
instruments to another so rapidly that the operators, either sending or receiving, 
cannot realize that the line has been disconnected from their instruments and 
given to others, because each of them will always have the line ready for use even 
at the highest rate of manipulation, and will, therefore, to all practical intents 
and purposes, have at his disposal a private wire between himself and the opera¬ 
tor with whom he is in communication. By this system, with the use of an ordi¬ 
nary printing telegraphic instrument, as many as seventy-two independent and 
separate circuits have been applied to a single line, permitting of seventy-two 
messages being sent at the same time, but at the rate of only about three words 
per minute for each of the seventy-two circuits. With the use of six Morse tele¬ 
graphic circuits the most rapid rate of transmission attainable by the most ex¬ 
pert operators is practicable ; and with twelve Morse circuits a rate of transmis¬ 
sion is practicable as rapid as that generally employed by an ordinary operator. 



146 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XXXI. 

THE GRAY HARMONIC SYSTEM. 

The application of harmonics-to telegraphy is the invention 
of Prof. Elisha Gray, of Highland Park, Illinois, and is based 
upon the familiar principle of acoustics, that a solid body hav¬ 
ing a musical note will vibrate by sympathy when in contact with 
another body having the same note. The principle adopted by 
Prof. Helmholtz, of Germany, in his method of separating tones 
transmitted through the air, is that on which is based the method 
finally adopted by Mr. Gray after numerous experiments which 
demonstrated certain facts, partly known previously to students 
of acoustics, and partly established by the experiments of Mr. 
Gray. These are that sounds travel in waves; that sound waves 
are of different lengths, each tone having its own length of wave; 
that different waves of sound may be transmitted simultaneously 
on a single wire. Every transmitting machine, therefore, has its 
distinct, particular tone, attuned perfectly by a tuner, and the 
message it transmits will travel along the wire without interrupiton 

by or interference with another message sent in a different tone, 

- 

until it reaches a receiving instrument tuned to exactly the same 
pitch as the transmitting instrument. 

By separating the instruments at each end of the line by 
non-conducting partitions, and varying the period or length of 
the tones, it is easy to conceive that two or four or six different 
messages may be sent over the same wire at one time, each 
pitched, so to speak, on a different key, corresponding to the 
different tones of the gamut. 

On long lines the successful working of this system depends 
much on the conductivity of the wire, and its insulation. The 
Postal Telegraph Company have adopted the Gray harmonic 
system and overcome much of the resistance by using a heavy 


TELEGRAPHY. 


147 


compound wire composed of a steel core, copper plated, the 
copper weighing 500 pounds to the mile, and the steel 200. 
The splices are riveted together by metal plates filled in with 
solder, thus this wire combines strength and great conductivity. 


Describe the Gray harmonic system of multiple telegraphy ?— 
“ At the sending end of the wire a reed is sent into vibration, 
and each of its swings is made to send a wave of electric¬ 
ity over the wire. These waves, reaching the receiving end, 
pass around the cores of an ordinary electro-magnet which has 
for an armature another reed with the same fundamental tone as 
the first one. Each pulsation of current magnetizes the soft 
iron core, which, in turn, attracts the reed and draws it out of 
place; then the current is broken, the core is demagnetized, and 
the reed, being set free, flies back to, and on account of its 
elasticity, a little beyond its position of rest, when it is again at¬ 
tracted by another wave of current and the motion repeats itself 
as long as the current waves last. If the vibrator at the send¬ 
ing end be thrown in and out of circuit, the reed at the receiv¬ 
ing end will start and stop exactly in accordance with it, and 
telegraphic signals may be transmitted, being received in the 
form of musical notes, a short note forming a dot and a long 
one a dash. ” 

How are the musical notes reduced into Morse characters upon 
an ordinary sounder ?—“ A very ingenious device has been in¬ 
vented by Professor Gray to reduce the notes again into Morse 
characters upon an ordinary sounder. A small bar of metal, 
called a rider, is balanced upon a supporting piece, and has one 
end resting upon the receiving reed. A light adjusting spring 
is attached to the rider. One pole of a local circuit, containing 
a sounder, is attached to the reed and the other pole to the 
rider. When the reed vibrates the rider trembles upon it and 
makes the connection in the local circuit so poor that the 



148 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


sounder opens; the instant the reed stops vibrating, the adjust¬ 
ing screw pulls the rider firmly down upon it, restores the cir¬ 
cuit and the sounder closes. So that when the sending key is 
open, it being so arranged that the vibrator is then to line, the 
receiving reed is in motion and the receiving sounder is open; 
close the sending key, the vibrator is thrown out, the receiving 
reed becomes quiet and the sounder closes, producing the same 
effect as in sending over a single wire with ordinary Morse ap¬ 
paratus. ” 

By this method how many tones may he practically transmitted 
at once ?—Theoretically as many tones may be transmitted sim¬ 
ultaneously as there are different reeds employed. “ Professor 
Gray has transmitted as many as eight tones at once, but the 
margin between them was so small and such very delicate ad¬ 
justment was necessary that, for practical work, he adopted four 
tones only; therefore as operated at present, four vibrators with 
different fundamental tones are placed at the sending end, and 
four receivers, so tuned that each will equal one of the vibra¬ 
tors in tone at the receiving end of the wire, and the four series 
of vibrations are transmitted simultaneously, each receiver re¬ 
sponding only to its own sender. Thus, we have four messages 
going in the same direction over one wire, and at the same time. 
In order to break, resistance is thrown in and out by the open¬ 
ing and closing of a key at the receiving end, which throws a 
relay that has been adjusted over the tone current at the opposite 
end out of adjustment and records the signals. All the receiv¬ 
ing operators use the same break key without confusion.” 

Explain the operation of the sendmg apparatus. —A trans¬ 
mitter is used similar in form to that in the duplex apparatus 
but modified in some particulars. 

“When the reed swings to the left the battery is short-circuited 
through the transmitter lever, lower spring and contact points. 
When to the right the metallic circuit is broken and + pole 
finds ground at the home, and - pole through the line at the 


TELEGRAPHY. 


149 


distant station. Instead of actually opening and closing the 
battery, the action of the vibrator only reduces its strength about 
60 per cent., and, as it is necessary that the same amount of 
current should always be to line to allow of the break 
relays being adjusted over it, the points are so arranged 
that when the transmitter is closed, cutting off the vibra¬ 
tor, the upper spring and point come into contact and 
throw about 40 per cent, of steady current to line. So that, 
whether the key be open or closed the same battery strength is 
always going to line. When the key is open it is being sent in 
pulsations (too close together to affect a Morse relay), and when 
the key is closed it is being sent steadily.” 

Explain the operation of the receiving apparatus. —“When the 
reed in the receiving relay is in a state of vibration caused by 
the action of the incoming waves of currents, the local circuits 
in which is included the reed and rider, becomes so imperfect 
(caused by the riders trembling) that the sounder opens; when 
the reed returns to a state of rest the contact becomes perfect 
and the sounder closes. 

The break key, when not in use, is left open, forcing the cur¬ 
rent to travel through about 3,000 ohms of resistance (or more 
according to the length of time) to find a ground. When the 
key is depressed, the current takes a new route of no resistance 
to ground, and the current is sufficiently increased, by having so 
much less resistance to encounter, that the magnet of the break 
relay, at the sending station, overcomes the tension of its arma¬ 
ture spring and closes, recording the signals made upon the key 
at the receiving station.” 

What other systems of commercial telegraphy besides the Morse 
system and its improvements are in use at the present time ?— 

In this country the American combination printing telegraph, 
comprising the Hughes combination and Phelps improvements. 
And the Phelps electro-motor printing telegraph, used chiefly on 
trunk lines between New York and the larger cities. And the 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


150 

automatic system known as the American “Rapid Telegraph.” 
In addition to these may be added the “Special systems” of the 
Gold and Stock printing telegraphs, the District telegraph ser¬ 
vice, the Fire and Police telegraph systems, the telephone, etc., 
etc. 

In England-the Wheatstone, Needle, Dial, and Automatic 
systems are much used. But in nearly every civilized country 
the Morse system is principally used, on account of its “sim¬ 
plicity,” “speed,” and comparative accuracy. 

There is, however, almost an endless variety of contrivances 
for transmitting and receiving messages, involving different ap¬ 
plications of electric and chemical science, for descriptions of 
which the student is referred to larger treatises. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


151 


SECTION XXXII. 

SWITCHES OR CUT-OUTS, SWITCH-BOARDS, GROUND WIRES AND 

LIGHTNING ARRESTERS. 



Fig. 14.—Western Union pin switch with improved disc 

lightning arresters. 

In addition to the instruments already described , what other con - 
trivances are usually employed in telegraph offices ? —Switches, or 
cut-outs, switch-boards, ground wires, lightning arresters, and in 
principal offices some others. 

What is the switch or ad-out ? —A contrivance designed to 
connect or disconnect the instruments from the main circuit 
without interrupting it, and may be divided into two classes, one 
in which the instruments are cut out by being merely short 
circuited and making new circuit connections, thus changing the 
course of the current, and the other, i* which the instruments 
may be cut out and entirely disconnected from the line, which 
is preferable, as it insures the safety of the instruments during 
thunder storms. 

Describe each method ?—The short circuiting method consists 














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COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


simply of two or more brass plates with holes provided for the 
insertion of pegs with insulated handles, so arranged that when 
the plates are attached to the circuit the insertion of the peg 
forms an electrical connection from one to the other, thereby 
cutting out the instruments from the main circuit. This appar¬ 
atus is usually made in combination with a lightning arrester and 
ground wire connection. 

The other method called the plug 
or wedge cut-out (Figure 15), by 
which the instruments can be to¬ 
tally disconnected from the line, 
is probably the best and most uni¬ 
versally used at way stations where 
there are only one or two wires. It 
consists of a wedge in combination 
with a spring-jack contrivance, in¬ 
vented in 1855 by G. F. Milliken, of 
Boston, Massachusetts. The plug or 
wedge to which the instrument wires 
are connected, consists of two pieces 
of brass insulated from each other by 
means of a thin plate of hard rubber 
provided with a handle of the same 
material, and the spring-jack consists 
of a base board with binding screws 
at the top for the line wires, and an 
elastic strip of brass rigidly attached 
at the upper end, and in connection 
with the right hand binding screw by 
Fig. 15. means of a wire underneath, while the 

lower end of the strip is armed with a brass pin which presses 
firmly against a stationary pin in connection, by means of a wire 
underneath the base, to the other binding screw. The pressure 
of the brass strip against the stationary pin is regulated by a set 
























































































































TELEGRAPHY. 


T .S3 

screw. When the wedge is inserted between the two pins, it 
separates them, breaking the circuit of the main line, but at the 
same instant opening a new path for the current through the two 
metalic sides of the wedge and the instruments; thus the latter 
may be inserted into or withdrawn from the main circuit without 
interrupting it. The arrangement may also be used for connect¬ 
ing batteries as well as instruments. This cut-out is frequently 
provided with a lightning arrester and ground connection ar¬ 
ranged with pegs, as seen in the engraving. 

What is the switch-board ?—A combination of switches adapt¬ 
ed to form various combinations of several different circuits. 
By its use every possible interchange of connection required 
can be made quickly and easily, testing operations carried on, 
instruments changed from one wire to another, loops connected 
or disconnected in any wire, and batteries connected, discon¬ 
nected, or reversed, and is used almost universally in telegraph 
offices, where there is more than one wire. Where a number of 
lines enter the same office they are all brought into the same 
switch-board, and in cases where the necessities of the service 
require it, wires are led from it to a separate set of instruments 
for each line, but in way stations it is more frequently the case 
that a smaller number of instruments is sufficient, and the nec¬ 
essary changes provided for by means of the switch-board, 
whereby any one of the instruments can be inserted into the 
circuit of any required line at pleasure. 

What form of switch-board is most generally used in this coun¬ 
try ?—Switches are made in a variety of forms according to 
the uses for which they are designed. Probably the one most 
generally and universally used in this country is the “peg” 
switch (Fig. 14), so called from the metallic plug or peg, used in 
forming or changing circuit connections. This switch has been 
adapted by the Western Union Telegraph Company as a stand¬ 
ard, and Is as near perfection with its spring-jack appliances as 
can be desired. 


*54 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Describe its construction. —In its simplest form, devoid of 
spring-jacks and other auxiliaries which enter so largely into its 
composition in the large city offices, the peg switch is composed 
of a series of vertical metallic bars, or strips, to which are at¬ 
tached the line wires, and of a number of metallic buttons, or 
discs, placed horizontally, each separate row connected together 
at the back of the base board by means of a copper wire termin¬ 
ating in binding screws at the side. To these latter are con¬ 
nected the instrument wires. “ Each disc has a semi-circular 
hole cut in its edge at each side, and each bar has the corres¬ 
ponding semi-circle cut opposite the hole in the disc, so that a 
metallic plug, put in any of the holes, presses against both the 
upright and cross bar, thus making the connection.” The pegs 
should, however, always be crowded firmly into the holes, with a 
twisting motion, in order to insure a proper connection. 

Explam the operation of the “peg” 
switch as adapted to the requirements of a 
way office 1 —“The accompanying diagram, 
Fig. 16, shows the connections of the peg 
switch as adapted to the requirements of 
a way office. It is so simple, and yet so 
perfect, that only a very brief explanation 
of the reference marks upon the cut will 
be necessary to a full understanding, i represents a vertical me¬ 
tallic bar, or strip, upon the switch, to which is connected a wire 
running into an office, and 2 represents the same wire going out. 
A and A' and B and B' are metallicbuttons, to which are connect¬ 
ed the instrument wires. All the buttons upon the same hori¬ 
zontal line, are connected together at the back of the switch. 

As shown in the cut, the circuit is “open.” To close it, with 
instrument in circuit, it would be necessary only to insert two 
metal plugs, or pegs; one at the orifice at B' and 2, and one at 
A and 1. The course of the current would then be as follows: 
From the line at 1 through the peg connection at A to instru- 






TELEGRAPHY. 


155 


ment; through instrument to B and B'; through the peg connec¬ 
tion there to the line at 2, and so out to the main line. Should 
it be desired to connect the line through, without instrument 
in circuit, the insertion of pegs in the orifices of either A' or 
B' would effect the desired result. 

The same form of switch, with a modification of connections, 
would answer for a terminal office. 

For this, let it be understood that a wire, leading from a bat¬ 
tery, one pole of which is grounded, is taken directly to one 
side of the instrument; through the instrument it goes to A; 
from A, if a peg be inserted in its orifice, it goes to 1 and to 
the main line. 

If, instead of placing the peg at A and 1, it be placed at A' 
and 2, the instrument would be connected to line 2.” 

Describe the peg switch as adapted to the require?nents of a large 
office .—Both the peg-switch and the wedge cut-out are employed, 
the latter changed in style and appearance somewhat, but still 
based on the original principle, and consists of wedges of hard 
rubber, having a thin brass strip upon each side, one being 
attached to one end of the instrument wire, and the other side 
to the return wire by means of a flexible conducting cord. In 
large offices the switch is divided into sections, each section 
accommodating a certain portion of the lines entering the 
office. The line wires are connected to the lower end of the ver¬ 
tical bars by first passing through the spring-jacks, and the bat¬ 
teries connected to the discs, between each pair of upright bars, 
the extreme left hand row of discs having a distinguishing num¬ 
ber engraved upon it. However, one row of horizontal discs is 
connected directly with the earth. Immediately underneath 
the lower end of the vertical bars are placed a corresponding 
number of spring-jacks, and beneath these again still another 
series of spring-jacks. Each main wire coming in from outside 
passes first through one of the upper spring-jacks, then through 
the lower one corresponding to it, and thence to its appropriate 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


156 

vertical bar ; each spring-jack bears upon it the number of the 
circuit to which it is attached. 

The lightning arrester is usually placed at the top in this class 
of switch board, in the shape of a brass bar connected to a 
ground wire, and placed horizontally Across all the upright or 
line bars, as close as possible to them without touching, or in 
the shape of discs placed across each pair of upright bars (as 
seen in Figure 14). In the larger offices, however, the 
lightning arresters are not attached to the switch, but placed at 
the point where the lines first enter the building. In front 
of the switch is usually placed a shelf or counter containing 
the necessary instruments used by the chief operators for 
testing purposes, which can be thrown into the circuit of any 
required line at pleasure, as they are connected with wedges by 
means of flexible conducting cord. 

What is the ground wire ? —A wire so situated that it may at 
pleasure be made to connect the line with the earth. 

For explanation of how the ground wire should be connected to the earth see 
section XXI. 

How many ground wires a?e there on a line ? —As many as 
offices; each office has one. However, for the different distinct 
services required of ground wires it would be better to use a 
separate wire connected to the earth at different points. 

Are they always in connection with the circuit ?—The terminal 
ground wires only are always connected. The others are never 
used, except when the line is out of order, or when it is desired 
to work a part of it only. 

What is the effect of connecting the ground wire to the line ?— 
It divides the line into two independent circuits, and forms a 
common conductor for both currents on the same principle that 
the earth forms one-half of every main circuit. 

What is the lightning arrester ? —It is a contrivance (usually 
in connection with the switch) designed to protect the tele¬ 
graphic instruments from the effects of heavy charges of atmos¬ 
pheric electricity which sometimes traverse the line. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


157 


Upon what principle is it constructed !—Upon the principle 
that atmospheric electricity, possessing a high tension, prefers 
to overleap a slight break in order to reach the earth by a short 
conductor, rather than to traverse a long circuit. 

Of what does it frequently consist? —Of two metallic plates 
whose surfaces are separated by mica. One of these plates con¬ 
nects with the ground wire, and the other with the main line. 

Explain its operation. —The instrument being constructed in 
this or some similar manner, the resistance of thin mica is all 
that prevents communication between the line and the earth. 
This resistance the ordinary Voltaic current is unable to over¬ 
come, and hence is obliged to keep on in the main circuit. But 
on the other hand, a discharge of atmospheric electricity pass¬ 
ing along the line and reaching the lightning arrester through 
the mica between its plates, enters the earth by the ground wire, 
thus being diverted from the relay. 

Mention another form of this instrument .—As lightning passes 
with facility between points, another torm, probably the most 
frequently employed, is a brass plate, containing saw-teeth or 
pointed screws arranged between, and in close proximity to 
other plates of brass, these plates provided with suitable bind¬ 
ing posts for connecting the wires; the middle plate with the 
teeth or screw point is the lightning arrester proper, and should 
always be connected to the ground by a good heavy copper wire; 
the other plates connect with the line. 

As none of these devices can be considered an absolute safe-guard, 
what precaution should be observed whenever atmospheric distur¬ 
bances become serious ?—The instruments should be cut out from 
the line in such a manner as to leave no break in the circuit; 
during severe thunder-storms this precaution should never be 
neglected. 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


158 


SECTION XXXIII. 

THE GALVANOMETER, WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE, RESISTANCE COILS, 
RHEOSTAT, CONDENSER, VOLTAMETER, AND ELECTROMETER. 

The galvanometer is one of the results of Oersted’s discovery, and is applied 
to a great variety of uses in connection with electrical science, and in some 
form is almost an indispensable requisite in every class of electrical measurement, 
especially so in practical telegraphy. 


What is the galvanometer ? —It is an instrument designed to 
detect the presence of a current, and is used for testing, for 
measuring electrical resistances, for comparing electro-motive 
forces, and for measuring the intensity of the current, and locat¬ 
ing faults on lines and cables. 



Fig. 17.—Detector galvanometer. 


Explain the construction of the galvanometer. —It is made in 
many forms, and for various purposes. All forms of the instru- 





























TELEGRAPHY. 


J 59 


ment consist of a coil of insulated wire and a magnetic needle 
freely suspended in such a manner as to be easily deflected by 
the passage of a current through the coils. A scale divided into 
degrees is usually added, by means of which the angle through 
which the needle is deflected from the magnetic meridian may 
be conveniently ascertained. 

What is the simplest form ? —The simplest form, known as the 
galvanoscope, or the detector galvanometer (see Fig. 17), consists 
of a simple magnetic needle freely suspended, popularly called a 
compass, surrounded by a coil of copper wire, the different con¬ 
volutions insulated from each other. When brought near a vol¬ 
taic current it tends to place itself at right angles to the direc¬ 
tion of that current. In another form the needle is weighted at 
one end, and hung perpendicularly in the coil; when the cur¬ 
rent flows it tips to the right or left as the case may be. 

For what purpose is it employed l —To show the presence of a 
current upon the line. For this purpose it is connected in the 
circuit, and when a current is passing, the needle is thrown aside 
from its natural northerly and southerly direction, and thus by 
its movement manifests the presence of the current, even when 
the relay fails to do so. 

Hozv does it show when the li?ie is in operation ?■ —By the vio¬ 
lent agitation into which it is thrown by the repeated cessation 
and renewal of the current. 

The influence of the current upon the needle is modified by the magnetism of 
the earth; the current must overcome this terrestial influence before it will cause 
any movement of the needle, consequently, but little if any deflection will be 
produced by a very weak current. A free magnetic needle always tends to place 
itself at right angles to the path of the current, and would actually assume that 
position if it were not for the magnetism of the earth, which prevents even the 
most powerful current to deflect a needle sufficiently to cause it to assume a 
position exactly at right angles to the path of the current. 

What is the most sensitive form of galvanometer useful as a 
meansrof detecting the presence of an electric current l —The 
most sensitive galvanometers are those known as the astatic sys- 


l6o COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

tem of needles, which consists of two separate needles, coupled 
together and placed in the same perpendicular planes, one 
directly over the other, but with their north and south poles 
opposite to each other. If the magnetism of the two needles 
were exactly equal, they would remain at rest in any position in 
which they were placed. But in practice one needle slightly 
overpowers the other, and by this excess determines the position 
of equilibrium. The coils or conducting wire is arranged in 
such a manner that it will tend to deflect both needles in the 
same direction. “ A light pointer or index is placed upon the 
axis above the upper coil, which traverses a scale divided into 
degrees, and serves to indicate the angle of deflection of the 
needles.” 

What is meant by the term deflection ? —The angle or number 
of degrees through which the needle of a galvanometer moves 
when a current is passing through its coils. 

What are the principal galvanometers now in use ? —The tan¬ 
gent and sine galvanometers, the differential, and Thomson’s 
reflecting galvanometer, and the Wheatstone bridge system of 
measurement. 

What is a tangejitgalvanometer ?—A tangent galvanometer is 
an instrument so constructed that the mathematical tangents of 
the angles of its deflections are in all cases strictly proportional 
to the strength of the currents by which the deflections are pro¬ 
duced. 

How is this effect produced ?—This effect is produced by so 
arranging the conducting wire relatively to the magnetized 
needle, that the current traversing the conductor will act uni¬ 
formly upon the needle in whatever position it may place itself, 
or in the same manner that the earth’s magnetism does, and 
consists essentially of a ring having a groove on its edge filled 
with wire. The needle is hung or pivoted precisely in the cen¬ 
tre of the ring, and must not be longer than one-sixth of its 
diameter, an inch-needle requiring at least a six-inch ring. The 


TELEGRAPHY. 


l6\ 

arrangement is as if a short compass-needle enclosed in its box 
were placed in the centre of the ring. 

What is meant by the term tangent? —A tangent is a line drawn 
at right angles to one of the radii of a circle, and touching its 
circumference. 

For what purpose is the tangent galvano?neter employed? —Al¬ 
though this instrument is not so sensitive as other galvano¬ 
meters, on account of the distance between the coil and the 
needle, it is regarded as the most convenient form for general pur¬ 
poses, and extremely useful for testing lines, because of the 
length of its scale and its accuracy. 

What form of this instrument is extensively used in the United 
States? —A form of construction invented in 1866 by Dr. L. 
Bradley, of Jersey City, combining in a high degree the merits 
of compactness, portability and accuracy, and is probably the 
most accurate tangent instrument made. 

Describe its constructio?i ?—It consists of a circular or disc 
needle, either composed of a single piece of steel, or of several 
short needles placed side by side, and the whole trimmed to 
form a circle. The north and south poles of the circular needle 
are at opposite points upon its circumference. Light aluminum 
pointers are attached to this disc for registering its movements. 
The needle is balanced upon a steel point, on which rests an 
agate. The coil is flat and is placed directly underneath the 
needle and in close proximity to it, so that the current runs par¬ 
allel with the meridian of the needle. The breadth of the 
coil slightly exceeds the diameter of the needle. In this instru¬ 
ment four coils are used, the first 150 or more ohms, the second 
25 or 30 ohms, the third, one to two ohms, and the fourth is a 
strip of sheet copper of the width of the coils, and wound three 
and a half times around the needle. The first coil is used for 
high resistance, the second and third for medium resistances and 
the fourth for very low resistances, or those of great quantity. 
The outer ends of all the coils are connected with a common 


162 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


binding screw; while the inner ones are each connected with a 
binding screw bearing its proper number. 



Fig. 18.—Standard differential galvanometer. 


What is a differential galvanometer ? —The differential galvano¬ 
meter is one whose needle is acted upon by two coils of equal 
length, resistance and power, and shows the difference in 
strength of two currents. It is wound with two wires, side by 
side, so arranged as to be exactly equal in ther effect on the 
needle. This instrument is used to measure resistances by com¬ 
paring them with the standard resistance coils. Fig. 18 gives a 
good illustration of the standard differential galvanometer. 

What is a sine galvanometer ? —A sine galvanometer is one 
which may be astatic or not. The needle is pivoted or sus¬ 
pended horizontally, and the coils are made so as to be capable 
of turning on the axis round which the needle turns; the coils 

























































TELEGRAPHY. 


163 


are turned by hand so as to follow the needle as it is deflected 
by the current. The strength of the current, in a sine galvano¬ 
meter, is proportional to the sine of the angle of deflection. 
This instrument is chiefly used for measuring and comparing 
weak currents. 

What is meant by the term “ sine" ? —The sine of any number 
of degrees is that part of the diameter of a circle which is 
included between a line drawn from its center to the zero point 
of the graduation circle, and another line parallel to the first, 
cutting the circle at the degree whose sine is required.— Culley. 

How may the se?isibility of a galvanometer be varied ? —By the 
use of what is termed a shunt. 

What is a shunt ? —A shunt is a resistance coil, or coil of fine 
wire used to divert some definite portion of a current, leading 
it past a galvanometer instead of through its coils, which, as a 
whole, is too powerful to pass through the instrument coils. 
Most galvanometers are usually provided with three shunts. A 
fine wire galvanometer may be shunted so as to be used for test¬ 
ing very small resistances. 

Explain Thomson's reflecting galvanometer. —This beautiful ap¬ 
paratus, invented by Sir William Thomson, of Glasgow univer¬ 
sity, is the most sensitive, and probably the most generally useful 
instrument of the kind ever devised. It is generally made 
astatic , and consists of a mirror of microscopic glass about one- 
eighth of an inch in diameter, suspended by a silk thread in the 
center of a coil of very fine wire. Four very small magnets, 
one-fourth of an inch long, are attached to the back of the mir¬ 
ror, one above the other. A scale of equal parts is placed two 
or three feet from the mirror ; with a narrow slit cut in the cen¬ 
ter to allow a ray of light to shine upon the mirror from a lamp 
placed behind it. This ray is reflected back upon the scale and 
is the index of the galvanometer; the angle through which the 
ray moves is double that traversed by the mirror, and it is there¬ 
fore really equivalent to an index four or six feet in length, with- 


164 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


out weight. When the scale is three feet from the mirror, each 
degree of deflection moves the spot of light more than an inch, 
the great length of the index thus renders the slightest move¬ 
ment of the mirror perceptible. The magnet is so sensitive that 
if the ends of the wire connecting the coil are held by the hands, 
one end being covered with tin-foil, there will be sufficient mag¬ 
netism excited to deflect the needle. If a current equal in 
strength to that produced by a knife blade, when brought near a 
magnetic needle, is received, it will move the magnet. An ad¬ 
justable permanent magnet is usually placed in the magnetic 
meridian, above the coil; by raising or lowering this magnet the 
action of the directive force of the earth upon the suspended 
magnet may be increased or weakened at pleasure. 

For what purpose is this galva?iometer used? —For very 
delicate measurements and high resistances, and is employed as 
a receiving instrument in connection with submarine cables. 

What is the principle of the Wheatstone bala?ice or bridge ? 
—It is usually represented by a diamond shaped parallelogram 
with two of the opposite corners connected by a cross wire hav¬ 
ing a galvanometer in circuit, and the other two opposite corners 
connected respectively to the two opposite poles of a battery. 
Any good galvanometer may be used with it. Three sets of resist¬ 
ance coils are arranged so as to form the three sides of the par¬ 
allelogram, the wire to be tested forming the fourth side. In 
practice, however, the apparatus does not bear the form as 
usually represented in diagram, but is arranged so that the coils 
may occupy as small a space as possible. Strictly speaking the 
Wheatstone balance or bridge is a system of measurement in¬ 
stead of a galvanometer. Two keys are used in connection with 
the apparatus for making and breaking contact; one inserted in 
the battery circuit, and the other in the bridge or cross wire. 

For what purpose is the Wheatstone bridge employed ? —For 
measuring resistances by balancing the unknown resistance 
against one known and capable of adjustment. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


i6 5 


Mention a form of galvanometer constructed on the Wheatstone 
bridge principle. —Siemens’ universal galvanometer much used 
in various parts of the country. It consists of a comparatively 
sensitive galvanometer the needle made astatic, combined with a 
Wheatstone bridge, and three resistance coils contained in a sort 
of casket, and when kept free from outside influences, to which 
it is very susceptible, and connected in a circuit it points out, 
with unerring distinctness, the exact condition of the electric 
current, or when anything is wrong with the wires. 

What is meant by taking the “ constant v of a galvanometer ? 
—To ascertain the deflection of the galvanometer needle, through 
a standard resistance coil by means of the battery used fortesting. 

What precautions are necessary in using any galvanometer ?— 
Great care should be taken not to allow too powerful currents to 
pass around the needle, as such currents are liable either to 
change the magnetic intensity of the needle or to reverse its 
polarity altogether, hence, in order to avoid injurious effects, the 
currents should not be allowed to act upon a galvanometer for a 
longer time than is necessary; during thunder-storms this instru¬ 
ment should never be used. 


As delicate galvanometers are disturbed by pieces of iron or 
steel in their immediate neighborhood, when the instrument is 
being used all such things should be removed from its influence; 
however, if enclosed in a sheet iron case or placed on an iron 
plate, the disturbing effect of outside influences is cut off, as 
magnetic pow r er is acquired by induction. The force acts 
through all substances not themselves capable of being mag¬ 
netized. A compass in a brass or wood box is as easily affected 
as if it were not so enclosed; but if shut in an iron box, a mag¬ 
net outside would act on it indirectly only, and feebly, through 
the magnetism induced in the iron of which the box is com¬ 
posed.— Culley . 



i66 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


What is a resistance coil? —An ordinary resistance coil is of 
unchangeable length, usually consisting of German silver wire 
insulated by a double covering of silk, and wound on ebonite 
bobbins or spools, one half in one direction, and the other half* 
in the opposite direction, which prevents induction; when wound 
the bobbins are saturated with hot paraffine, which preserves the 
insulation, and prevents the silk covering from becoming damp. 



Fig. 19. -THE RHEOSTAT. 

What is the rheostat ? —A set of resistance coils so arranged 
that the amount of resistance in any given circuit may be meas¬ 
ured or regulated at pleasure. 

Does the construction and arra?igement of the rheostat vary ?— 
Yes, depending in a great measure upon the conditions, under 
which it is intended to be used, whether for the insertion of 
large or small resistances into the circuit. They are used to 
construct an artificial line, which may be contained in a small 
space, and yet produce the same effect upon a current as an ac¬ 
tual line of great length. 

Explain the principle oj the standard rheostat? —It consists of 

























































































































































































TELEGRAPHY. 


167 


a combination of several resistance coils, ranging from one ohm 
to ten thousand, securely enclosed in a mahogany or rose¬ 
wood box. To economize space, the small resistances are made 
of thick wire, the higher ones of thin wire ; a series of short 
metallic blocks are placed at equal distances apart and screwed 
down to a plate of ebonite, which forms the top of the box in 
such a manner, that they can be connected together by means 
of brass pegs inserted between them at pleasure. The brass 
blocks connect with the ends of the coils beneath, and the line 
and battery wires are connected to these by means of binding 
screws placed in the top of the box. (See Fig. 19). 

What is meant by such expressions as a fifty mile, one hundred, 
or two hundred mile rheostat?— Such expressions refer to rheo¬ 
stats that introduce into the circuit a resistance equal to that of 
fifty, one hundred or two hundred miles respectively, of ordinary 
line wire. 

What is a condenser? —It is an apparatus by means of which 
a large quantity of electricity can be gathered on a small surface. 

How is it constructed? —Its form may be greatly varied, but the 
essential parts consist of two good conductors, which are sepa¬ 
rated from each other at a small distance by a non-conductor, 
and is usually made of alternate sheets of tin foil and various in¬ 
sulating substances, such as sheets of thin glass, mica, gutta 
percha or paraffine paper, the leaves laid singly one upon another 
like the pages of a book, and the tin foil sheets connected to¬ 
gether in two series upper and under, each by themselves. 

What is the use of the condenser ?—It is used in connection 
with the duplex, quadruplex, and automatic telegraphy, sub¬ 
marine cables, induction, apparatus, and for comparing the 
electro motive force of batteries. 

What is the voltameter? —An apparatus for measuring the 
current by its chemical action. 

What is the electrometer ?—An instrument for measuring dif¬ 
ference of electric potential. 


i68 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XXXIV. 

TELEGRAPHIC FAULTS OR INTERRUPTIONS. 

Aerial telegraph lines are constantly exposed to interruptions 
and variations in resistance. “Every shower of rain, fog, dew, 
and mist affect its resistance. Lines exposed to the spray of the 
sea, or to the smoke of manufactories are peculiarly liable to 
variations.” 

There are other causes besides the above which interfere 
with, and affect the working of, an aerial line. In the words of 
Mr. W. H. Preese, we enumerate many of the causes which 
relate to the irregularities to which an aerial line is peculiarly 
liable. 

“ It may be brought into contact with other wires upon the 
same poles by the position of the pole itself, being disturbed by 
falling branches, trees, or rocks, by high loads at crossings, by 
whiplashes, by kite strings and cotton waste, by careless work¬ 
men, and even by the wind itself when very high. Loose or 
broken stays may place the wire in contact with signal posts, 
walls, bridges, and trees. Trees, unless carefully lopped, may 
grow up amongst the wires. Joints may become bad from the 
absence or failure of the solder. Malicious or thoughtless per¬ 
sons may twist them together. Various moving accidents by 
flood and field disturb the wires, and these disturbances are evi¬ 
denced by varied resistance. But subterranean and submarine 
wires are free from all these vicissitudes. The resistance of 
their insulating coating is practically constant. Cables lie be¬ 
neath the sea upon a cushion of equable temperature, and they 
are far removed from atmospheric disturbances.” 

What is a telegraphic fault ?—Any obstruction or impediment 
which interferes with the constancy of the resistance of the line 
affecting the currents, is a fault. 



TELEGRAPHY. 


169 


What are the principal faults to which the telegraph is liable ?—* 
Breaks, partial disconnections, defective insulation, causing es¬ 
capes or partial earth, dead earth or “ a ground ” crosses, swing¬ 
ing crosses, weather crosses, and defective earth connection at 
the terminals. 

What other causes interfere more or less with the working of the 
circuits ? —Earth currents, depending on the variation of the dif¬ 
ference of potential at the extremities of the line, or on induc¬ 
tion from the free electricity in the air and in the clouds. 

Does the electrical condition of the atmosphere produce any effect up - 
on the telegraph? —It does, often causing heavy charges of electric¬ 
ity to pass along the line, such discharges being the most frequent 
during or immediately before thunder storms, often injuring the 
instruments. All great terrestrial and atmospheric changes are 
accompanied by electrical disturbances which produce their effect 
upon the line, especially those which culminate in aurora, 
electric storms, thunder storms, and earthquakes. Electric 
storms are generally preceded or accompanied by aurora, and 
produce currents of great strength, often overcoming entirely the 
working current. 

These currents are sometimes steady, but they more generally 
vary rapidly in strength and duration. Thunder storms are also 
accompanied with current effects, which disturb the working of 
the wires, and there are many authentic cases of such currents 
preceding earthquakes. In fact, telegraph wires are subject to a 
constant state of variation and change. 

What is a break ? —Any accidental rupture of the line, caus¬ 
ing total disconnection. 

How 7 nay breaks be classified ? —Into three kinds. 

1st. Neither of the ruptured ends communicate with the 
earth. 

2d. One end communicates with the earth. 

3d. Both ends communicate with the earth. 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


170 

What follows a break of the first kind ?—A total suspension 
of current throughout the entire line. 

What of the second l —Suspension of current on that end of 
the line which does not communicate with the earth. The other 
end forms a short circuit. 

What of the third ?—Each end of the line forms a short 
circuit. 

How is a break ma?iifested ? —By the refusal of the line to 
work its entire length. 

What is a swinging break ?—A break or disconnection which 
makes itself manifest by opening and closing the circuit at long 
and short intervals, caused either by the effect of the wind on a 
loose joint in the line wire, or from a loose connection in the of¬ 
fice, or sometimes done by means of the key for the sake of an¬ 
noyance. 

What is a paidial disconnection ? —Partial disconnection occurs 
when the resistance of the line is greatly increased, and may be 
caused by a rusty or bad joint in the wire, dirt at the contact 
points of the apparatus, or imperfect connections, or by an im¬ 
perfect terminal ground connection, or it may be caused in the 
main battery, when not in proper condition. 

What is the effect of a partial disconnection ? —A fault of this 
kind so weakens the current, that the instruments in circuit work 
very weak. 

What is an escape ? —Such a connection of the line with the 
earth that a part or all of the current escapes. The amount of 
escape depends essentially upon the insulation of the line, the 
character of the country through which it passes, and the nature 
of the weather. 

In wet weather most lines are subject to some slight escape, 
which is usually equally distributed over the whole line, and 
some lines are much affected by defective insulation and inter¬ 
ference of trees. “Short lines, as a rule, are little disturbed by 


TELEGRAPHY. 


171 

variations of short duration, but long lines, of 200 miles and 
upwards, are the subject of constant variations, due to atmos¬ 
pheric changes at different points. A thunder storm here, a 
shower there, excessive radiation at one point, cloudiness at 
another point—all tell their tale.” 

How many kinds of escapes are there ? —Two; partial, when a 
part of the current escapes into the earth, and total, when it all 
does. 

JVhat is the effect of a total escape ? —As in the case of a 
break of the third kind, each part of the line forms a short 
circuit. 

What of a partial escape ? —Offices on the same side of an 
escape can woik with each other as usual, but a key in any part 
of the circuit cannot fully control the current beyond the escape; 
hence, messages are transmitted over the escape with greater or 
less difficulty, according to its magnitude. In this case it is 
necessary to adjust the relay spring higher for distant offices, 
and lower for those nearer. 

Mentio?i another form of escape which sometimes happens. —It 
sometimes happens that the operating table is covered with oil¬ 
cloth, so that a portion of the main current finds a passage 
through the oil cloth while the key is open. This does not con¬ 
duct any of the current to the earth, and cannot properly be 
called an escape, though every relay in circuit with a key on oil¬ 
cloth or enameled cloth must have a high adjustment to receive 
the writing from such a key. This trouble, however, does not 
in the least interfere with such office in receiving from other sta¬ 
tions, nor does it at all affect other offices in working with one 
another. Oil-cloth covering for a table should be avoided, or a 
place cut out for the key, so that it may rest on the table. 

What is a cross l —Any accidental communication between 
two or more lines allowing their currents to intermingle. 

Between what lines does it ge?ierally occur ?—Between lines 
running together along the same set of poles. 


172 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


What is the effect of a cross'! —The lines connected by it 
refuse to work independently; or, in other words, the current 
on each line is not properly controlled by the key, being more or 
less influenced by the current on the line or lines connected with 
it by the cross. 

How may business be conducted on one of the lines so con¬ 
nected! —By opening all the others. The line not opened will 
then operate as if there were no cross. 

Is it Jiecessary that different parts of the same line should be 
used on opposite sides of the cross !—It is not, provided the 
intercommunication of the lines be perfect or nearly so; for in 
that case, even if parts of different lines be employed, the 
cross will in effect unite them into one. 

What is a weather cross !—A leakage of the current in wet 
weather from one wire to another upon the same poles, caused by 
defective insulation. 

How may it be prevented! —This fault maybe prevented by 
“earth wiring ” that is, providing a good earth wire so fixed on 
every pole as to allow the leakage at once to pass to earth with¬ 
out interfering with any other wire. This means of preventing 
the fault, however, is liable to produce considerable variation in 
the resistance of the lines. 

What is a swinging contact! —One wire swinging against 
another, or against a tree or other conductor, but remaining in 
contact only a short time. 

What is a local cross !—Such a connection between the relay 
magnet cores and the local circuit as sometimes produces an 
escape or partial ground, if the local battery is not thoroughly 
insulated. 

Any operator can readily test his relay for local cross by 
touching ground wire to the soft iron cores. If it interrupts the 
working, it shows that the magnet wire is in connection with the 
iron cores, and if the armature strikes or touches the cores, or 


TELEGRAPHY. 173 

the local circuit has any connection with the cores, a local cross 
is produced. 

What is the effect produced by defective earth terminals ?— 
When the terminal ground wire-plate or conductor is defective, 
and offers a sensible resistance, a current on any one wire con¬ 
nected to it divides itself among the remaining wires; making 
them appear to be all crossed, as it is customary to connect all 
the circuits of a station to one and the same ground connection. 

What are earth currents ? —“ The potential of the earth varies 
at different times and in different places, from some unknown 
cosmical cause. By this variation of the difference of potential 
at the extremities of a line, currents are produced in the wires 
called earth currents , which vary both in direction and strength, 
sometimes rapidly, sometimes slowly. Lines running easterly 
and westerly are much affected by them, but not so much those 
running north and south. They are always more or less present, 
and vary diurnally with much regularity, apparently following the 
motion of the earth about its axis. These daily currents do not 
much disturb the working of the circuits, though they tend to 
diminish the speed of working of those long circuits which are 
exposed to their influence. It is, however, their occasional and 
exceptional variation which disturbs the working of circuits.” 
Especially interfering with the telegraph when they reach their 
maximum, termed electric storms. 

What is the effect of electric storms on the line ?—Such atmos- 
spheric disturbances cause waves of electricity to traverse the 
line in rapid succession, interfering with the regular battery cur¬ 
rents, sometimes admitting of the wires being worked by its cur¬ 
rents, dispensing altogether with battery power; but such currents 
are variable in their force, and fluctuating in their action, and 
cannot be depended upon. 

How may the lities be successfully worked during the prevalence 
of electric storms ?—By forming complete metallic circuits of any 


174 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


two wires between any two points, by disconnecting the ground 
wires at the terminal offices, and looping or connecting the lines 
together, with an independent battery in circuit. The effect of 
earth currents may be obviated in the same way where two wires 
affected run parallel to each other. 

What is the effect produced upon lines by the aurora borealis or 
northern light ? —It is sometimes similar to that of electric 
storms, but much less violent. 

What general principle may be observed i?i regard to any tele¬ 
graphic inte 7 'ruptio 7 i which diverts fro 77 i the line either all or a 
part of the current ?—That between either main battery and the 
place of such interruption, the line will work perfectly with the 
use of the ground wire, and often without it. 

There is frequently an exception to this rule in case of interruptions, which 
take place near the terminus of the line. In such cases, the distance between 
the place of the interruption and the remote terminus is often too great to be 
worked with advantage by a single battery. 

What are reversed batteries l —Two batteries placed in the 
same circuit with like poles toward each other. In this case, if 
the line is perfect or nearly so, no current will pass over it though 
the circuit be complete—for each battery will oppose the other. 
In such a case a way office can get battery from either direction 
by putting on the ground wire, thus dividing the line into two 
independent circuits, neither interfering with the other. 


SECTION XXXV. 

ORDINARY TESTING—ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT. 

What is testmgl —Testing, so called, is proving the electrical 
condition of the wires and instruments, and is usually done each 
morning before the day’s work commences. This not only 
enables the chief operator to know their exact condition at the 
time, and remove any fault before it has increased sufficiently to 



TELEGRAPHY. 


175 


interfere with business, but the careful examination and com¬ 
parison of the state of a circuit for an extended period provides 
data necessary for determining the distance of any interruption, 

With a main battery at both ends of the line , how is no curren t 
on the line indicated ?—By the relay magnet failing to attract its 
armature caused either by the line wire being broken, “ reversed 
batteries,” or a ground cuts off the main battery or the leading 
in wires are crossed, or an office key is open. 

When “ no current ” is observed , what should be done ? —Im¬ 
mediately try the ground wire to ascertain in which direction it 
is open, and when practicable report at once to the terminal 
office the result, from which instructions will be sent in regard 
to the proper method of procedure, in order to allow the unin¬ 
jured portion of the line to be operated until the fault is re¬ 
moved. 

What does it indicate should the application of the ground wire 
give no current either way l —That the line is either broken on 
both sides or else is open in the office. 

What should be done to locate the trouble ?—First 7 nake sure 
that the fault is not in your own office. In such cases always 
suspect the trouble in the office, and immediately proceed as 
follows : First open the key, then moisten the forefinger of each 
hand, and place them on the line wires, where they enter the 
switch. If a current is felt the trouble is in the office, and will 
usually be found in a loose screw-post—either in switch or relay 
—in screws that fasten wires to the legs of the key under the 
table, in loose or dirty circuit breaker of key, in the fine wire 
under the base of the relay used to connect the screw-posts with 
the coils of the itstrument, in an imperfect connection made by 
loose button or plug in switch, or in flexible wire used to con¬ 
nect instruments to switch, or in the office wires, that connect 
the instruments together. 

What is the ordinary method pursued in locating crosses ?— 


176 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


A way office having two or more wires passing through it, will 
be frequently called upon by the terminal offices to open a wire, 
and say when open. This service should be performed promptly, 
and the line must not be reported open , until it really is, and 
when closed, it must be reported closed in the same manner. 

The testing operator generally requests the most distant 
office to open one wire, and make dots upon the other, he then 
opens the second wire in his own office, and if the dots sent on 
the second wire are received upon the first, the trouble is be¬ 
tween the two offices. While the other operator is making 
dots, the testing operator opens the key upon the same wire, but 
still keeps working the key, although the circuit is open—he 
then requests the distant office to open the first wire, and opens 
it also at his own office, this then leaves the second wire free 
from interference, and offices can be raised without difficulty, 
commencing from the most distant office, or an office about 
midway along the line, he then calls them in regular order, in¬ 
structing each to send dots on the second wire, while his keys 
are closed. When the dots are received on both wires, the 
cross is between his office and the office sending, but if upon 
the second wire only the cross is beyond the station sending. 

How can a way office locate a cross ?—A way office can locate 
a cross by having other offices on the wire open it in turn while 
he writes on the other. The cross is located between the two 
contiguous pffices, one of whom, by opening the wire, causes the 
writing sent on the other to disappear; and the other of whom, 
opening the wire, has no effect on the writing passing through 
the cross. The cross is, in the first place, decided to be east or 
west ot the office testing by noticing from which side the writing 
from other offices seems to be most interrupted by the trouble. 

What is the method in case of slight crosses or swinging crosses ? 
The test is often made by the operator, placing the finger of one 
hand upon the ground wire, and the finger of the other hand 
upon the proper line wire in the switch board. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


177 


What causes may produce a cross in an office? —Line wires 
touching each other, a piece of metal, a damp wall, board or 
any conducting substance. 

Which wire is maintained in case of a cross ? —The wire run¬ 
ning into the largest number of offices, and which can be made 
the most available. 

In case of a cross , how can the wire or wires , which are to id 
ope?iea , be ?nade use of? —The nearest office on one side of the 
cross should take out the main line wire from the switch next 
the cross, and substitute a ground wire, and the first office on 
the other side do the same ; this leaves the line free for the use 
of the respective offices on each side of the cross ; when the 
cross is removed, the wires must be replaced. 

What is the ordinary method pursued in locating escapes ? —If 
the escape is so heavy that it can be worked over with difficulty, 
or not at all, it must be tested for in the following manner : The 
current will traverse the fault, and go to the earth through the 
leak, and thence back to the battery, even if the keys beyond 
the escape be open. An escape is readily located by requesting 
offices to open their keys in turn, and adjusting down, to see if 
there is any current on the line while the key is open. The 
escape is always between two contiguous offices, one of whom, 
opening his key, the escape disappears, and the other of whom, 
opening, leaves the current weakened, but not open. 

What causes may produce an escape in an office ? —Wires, switch 
or instruments, touching moist or metallic lead substance con¬ 
necting with the earth. Examine office connections carefully if 
the trouble is near the office. 

In wet weather a line with a main battery at both ends, troubled with a bad 
escape, may be worked better for through business by switching off the battery 
at the receiving end of the line. 

When requested to do so } what is the best method to open the line? 
—This is best done in the switch formed of two flat brass 
springs and a plug between them, by inserting a wad of paper 


17s 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


penholder, or other dry, non-metallic substance between the 
springs ; in some switches, removal of a peg or turning a button 
answers the same purpose. In case there is any doubt about 
the way the switch works, remove the line wire from the screw 
post at the top of the switch altogether. If there is but one 
wire, leave the key open half a minute, and then close it. 

' What is the best plan to ground one end of a wire in an office 
and leave the other end ope?i ?—This is best done by removing 
one end of the line wire from the screw-post at the top of the 
switch, and inserting the ground wire in its place. 

What is meant by “ cross-connect No. r and No. 2 ” l —This 
means to connect No. 1 south to No. 2 north, and No. 2 south 
to No. 1 north, or so that the wires will work through. The 
simplest way to do this is to take No. 1 north and put it in 
screw-post where No. 2 north is, then put No. 2 north in screw- 
post where No. 1 north was. 

What is meant by '‘'‘straighten Nos. 1 and 2 ” ?—This means 
to restore the wires to their usual condition, and may mean, take 
ground off, close circuit, or anything that may countermand any 
change that has been ordered. 

What is the duty of operators in case of interruption of the 
line ?—Operators are expected at all times to observe the work¬ 
ing condition of the lines, and when they receive information, 
or, from their own knowledge, know the wires to be broken, or 
on the ground between their own and the next office, they must 
at once send word to the chief operator, notifying him of such 
break, and take immediate measures to send out track men, or 
the telegraph repairer, to fix the line. Should the trouble be in 
or near an office, the operator must then give his personal atten¬ 
tion to fixing up the line, or send some other competent employe 
to do so. 

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT. 

At principal offices, what method is pursued in locating faults ? 


TELEGRAPHY. 


179 


—The tests are made by actual measurement by means of the 
tangent galvanometer and rheostat, especially adapted to the 
purpose, and is so delicate and exact, that any fault in the line 
a hundred miles away, can be located within half a mile of it, 
and at ordinary distances within a few hundred feet; for in¬ 
stance, if a defect occurs on a wire anywhere within the city 
of New York, the electrician in the central office can ascertain 
its location within half a block. 

Are daily tests made of all important circuits l —It is usual 
to make two kinds of tests daily of each wire—1st, when the 
line is grounded at the distant end ; and, 2nd, when it is insulat¬ 
ed. The first is called conductivity resistance, and the second 
insulation resistance. 

Are the results of these daily tests and of all interruptions in 
the working of the lines recorded l —-Yes, in a book provided for 
the purpose ; besides, all principal offices of the Western Union 
Telegraph company are required to fill out printed schedules, 
containing particulars of all tests, interruptions, etc., and forward 
to the electrician’s office. 

For electrical measurement what instrument is used in connection 
with the rheostat l —The galvanometer often made in combina¬ 
tion with the rheostat as one instrument, with a switch attached, 
by means of which it may be moved from the standard resist¬ 
ance to the resistance to be measured. 

What are the difficulties which present themselves in locating the 
distance of faults'! —The varying resistance of the fault itself, 
and an absence of a correct determination of the true resistance 
of the several portions of the circuit, including, as many circuits 
do, apparatus and portions of wire of a different gauge and dif¬ 
ferent conductivity. 

With what method of apparatus may the most accurate 
measurements be obtained! —The most accurate methods of 
testing are by means of the differential galvanometer, or the 


i8o 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Wheatstone balance or bridge, and a set of resistance coils; 
however, accuracy sufficient for ordinary purposes may be at¬ 
tained by the use of a tange?it galvanometer, with a delicately 
balanced needle and scale properly divided, and a standard 
resistance coil or coils. 

How is the rheostat employed in measuring resistances in the 
circuit l —To measure resistance by any ordinary galvanometer, 
using resistance coils, we must first connect up the galvanometer 
in circuit with resistance to be measured and a battery sufficient 
to produce a good deflection. Note the deflection produced, 
then substitute the rheostat for the unknown resistance. When 
all the holes are plugged, the resistance is practically nothing. 
When any hole is unplugged, the current cannot leap the dis¬ 
tance between them, and is obliged to pass from the first block 
through the coil below it to reach the second block. The resist¬ 
ance thus inserted is indicated by a number marked opposite the 
hole. In measuring a resistance peg after peg is pulled out until 
the needle is found to rest at zero. The resistances of the vari¬ 
ous coils that have been brought into the circuit by pulling out 
pegs, are then added together, which show the total resistance 
of the line, which has been balanced against them. 

How does the apparatus show the course of the current l — 
By the direction of the deflection of the needle. 

How does it show the force of the current l —By the degree 
of its deflection. 

How does it show how many miles of line wire the current 
has to traverse to reach a fault l —By the proportion in which it 
divides when passed through the resistance coils, or rather by the 
amount of resistance of the coils added together. 

How may the distance of an earth or ground be located l —The 
method given by Culley is as follows: The loop test is the 
most accurate, and should always be adopted whenever a second 
wire is available, because it is not affected by a variation in the 


TELEGRAPHY. 


181 


resistance of the fault. Shorten the length to be tested as much 
as possible and let all the instruments in circuit be taken out. 
Choose a good wire, one free from fault and similar, if possible, 
to the wire to be tested. Insulate both from earth at the near¬ 
est available point beyond the fault and let them be connected 
together there in a loop insulated from earth. Two tests must be 
made, the first to find the resistance of the entire loop, the 
second to find the difference in resistance of the portions on 
either side of the fault or how much must be added to the 
shorter portion to make its resistance equal to that of the longer. 
If the rheostat is not sufficient to measure the resistance, that 
coil of the differential to which it is attached may be shunted, 
in which case the reading must be multiplied by the value of the 
shunt. 

How may the line resistance be measured from an intermediate 
station ? —The method given by Mr. F. L. Pope with the Bradley 
or any good tangent galvanometer is as follows : Connect the 
main circuit so that it will pass through i and 11 of the rheostat, 
and through the No. i coil of the galvanometer. When the cir¬ 
cuit is closed for a few seconds take a reading of the deflection, 
then unplug a sufficient resistance to reduce the deflection per¬ 
haps one-half (1,000 or 2,000 ohms will usually answer,) and take 
a second reading. It is well to reverse the connections and 
repeat the two observations and take the mean result of the two 
deflections. 

How may the internal resistance of a battery be measured ? — 
There are various methods of determining the internal resistance 
of a battery. The method given in “Haskins’ Galvanometer” 
is as follows : Put the battery in circuit with a sine or tangent 
galvanometer. Note the deflection. Halve the tangent of the 
deflection by introducing resistance. The resistance introduced 
is equal to the original resistance—that of the battery and the 
galvanometer coil. Deduct the latter and you have the desired 
result. 


182 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Are way offices allowed to put instruments in circuits they do 
not usually work ? —YVay offices should never put instruments 
on wires they do not usually work, without instruction from the 
chief operator in charge of the circuit, except in cases of inter¬ 
ruption of their regular wires, when they can use any wire that 
may be working to ask instructions. Putting in relays without 
orders may destroy the results of tests being made, and if the 
wire be in use for duplex, quadruplex, or automatic instruments, 
the addition of another relay may, by its added resistance and 
induction, seriously disturb the working of the circuit. 

Orders by proper authority to make changes in wires should 
be at once obeyed. In case anything occurs which prevents the 
carrying out of the order, the person who gave it should be noti¬ 
fied at once. 


SECTION XXXVI. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHY-THE ATLANTIC CABLES. 

When was the first submarine cable laid l —The first sub¬ 
marine cable was laid August 27, 1850, from Dover, England, 
to Calais, France, across the channel, and communication was 
made telegraphically through the wire. This was soon inter¬ 
rupted however. But in 1851 another and better cable was 
manufactured and successfully laid. The first Atlantic cable 
was laid in 1858, but completely failed after working only twen¬ 
ty-six days. Various reasons are given for its failure, but it is 
generally conceded that the insulation was destroyed by a too- 
powerful current. The first Atlantic cable to work successfully 
for any length of time was laid in 1866. 

Describe the general construction of submarine cables .—Long 
submarine cables consist of a strand of several copper wires act¬ 
ing as the conductor. 

“ Each of the Atlantic cables, old and new, is a one-wire con- 




TELEGRAPHY. 1 83 

ductor, seven copper wires (six wound around one) acting as a 
single conductor.” 

The conducting wires are insulated by several layers of gutta 
percha, or a compound called Hooper’s india-rubber, and a 
serving of jute. And for protection the whole is surrounded by 
an armor consisting of several strands of large iron wire each 
enveloped in fine strands of manilla hemp, the diameter of the 
cable being about an inch. 

What is the average age of an Atlantic cablet —Experience 
has shown that the life of a cable is from ten to twelve years. 
If a cable breaks in deep water after it is ten years of age, it 
cannot be lifted for repairs, as it will break of its own weight; 
and cable companies are compelled to put aside a large reserve 
fund in order that they may be prepared to replace their cables 
every ten years. The action of the sea water eats the iron wire 
completely away, and it crumbles to dust, while the core of the 
cable may be perfect. The breakages ot cables are very costly, 
and it is a very difficult matter to repair them, in comparison 
with a land line. Cables can only be repaired in the calmest 
seasons, and a ship chartered at great expense is often two or 
three weeks in fixing the locality, and in avoiding rough 
weather. 

Explain in brief the difficulties to be met with in submarine 
telegraphy. —The peculiar conditions, which are met with, require 
the use of batteries of very small power in order to avoid any 
possibility of injury to the insulating coating of the cable, and 
for various other reasons. The current thus being so inconstant 
in its movement, the ordinary telegraph apparatus cannot be 
used. The current flowing through the cable induces a tempor¬ 
ary current in the reverse direction on the outside of the con¬ 
ductor, and the attraction between the two retards the current 
and this retardation increases in a geometric ratio with the length 
of the cable. The cable becomes, in effect, an enormous 
Leyden jar, the wire constituting the interior, the water the 


184 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


exterior coating, with the gutta-percha insulator between. When 
the circuit is closed, the jar is charged, and discharged when it 
is opened. This also causes delay. The current moves as a 
wave which gradually travels along the wire, appearing in differ¬ 
ent parts at successive intervals of time; and by adjusted 
touches of the key successive waves may follow each other 
through the wire before the first has died away. If the battery 
be too large, the cable will be destroyed; if too weak, the signal 
is too fleeting to be seen without prolonging the wave to such an 
extent as to prevent rapid transmission. 

What apparatus is employed as a receiving instrument ?—To 
overcome the difficulties of working the cable a very delicate 
form df Sir William Thomson’s “reflecting” or mirror galvanom¬ 
eter is employed as a receiving instrument, which renders sub¬ 
marine telegraphy commercially practicable. For description of 
this instrument see Section XXXIII. 

Explavi the operation of this instrument. —In working long 
cables the signaling is effected by sending reversals of the cur¬ 
rent through them; one polarity of the current corresponding to 
the dot, the other to the dash. The “mirror” galvanometer is 
so constructed that the zero point is in the center of the scale, 

N 

exactly opposite the mirror, and when no current is passing, the 
spot of light which serves as an index remains at zero. The 
instant a circuit is closed the magnet and mirror are deflected, 
and the light moves to the right or left on the scale, as the cur¬ 
rent is positive or negative. A very minute displacement of the 
magnet gives a very large movement of the ray of light. A 
movement on one side of the zero point represents the dot, on 
the other the dash, of the Morse alphabet, and the interval be¬ 
tween the two the space. Before the first element has been re¬ 
ceived a second and even a third are following in its wake. To 
work such an instrument requires more than one operator, the 
receiver reads the signals and pronounces them distinctly to the 
second operator who writes them down; it is therefore of vital 


TELEGRAPHY. 


185 

importance that the writer thoroughly understands the reader’s 
pronunciation of both letters and words. The operator reads 
the indications from a point just in the rear of the magnet and 
coil, the light of the lamp being cut off by the screen, so that 
he only sees the small luminous opening through which the light 
passes to the mirror, and a brilliantly defined image of the flame 
upon the white scale just above, which is kept in shadow by the 
screen. 

What other apparatus has recently been employed ?—A register¬ 
ing instrument, called the syphon recorder, also the invention of 
Sir William Thomson. 

Explain its operation —It is so arranged as actually to deline¬ 
ate on paper, the apparently irregular movements of the galvan¬ 
ometer needle. It consists of a small glass tube, which waves 
to and fro over a running strip of paper without touching it. 
The ink is spurted upon the paper by a series of electric sparks 
in a fine shower, which makes a continuous line upon the paper, 
giving a faithful record of the motion of the current, the upward 
waves representing dots, and the downward waves dashes. The 
syphon is connected with a coil of copper wire, an electro¬ 
magnet and an ebonite disk, armed with pieces of soft iron, 
which, being attracted by the magnet, is kept rotating, and regu¬ 
lates the current flowing from the battery and the cable. Acted 
on by the current, the ink, as already stated, squirts from the 
syphon and writes a succession of dots and dashes which repre¬ 
sent the letters of the alphabet. 

What else is necessary in the operation of cables ? —Condensers. 

What is the speed of transmission on submarine cables ?—The 
speed of transmission on submarine telegraph cables varies ac¬ 
cording to the length of the circuit, and the character of the 
conducting wire. Upon some long cables it is not more than 
10 to 12 words per minute, while on others of less length and 
greater conductivity it reaches 15 to 17 words per minute. Some 


i86 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


cables, however, are capable of being worked up to a greater 
number of words per minute. 

What is retardation ?—A term applied to the inductive action 
which reduces the rate of signalling in submarine cables, etc. 

How are breaks in the Atlantic cables located ? —The resistance 
per mile of the cable being known, the resistance to the break 
is ascertained, and the location of the break can thus be easily 
and correctly determined. 

Hoiu do ?nagnetic storms affect the cablesl —They seem to im¬ 
pair the electrical equilibrium of the two continents, causing 
earth currents to flow from one shore to the other through the 
cable. 


SECTION XXXVII. 

THE TELEPHONE. 

It is said that the name “telephone” originated with Profes¬ 
sor Wheatstone, who applied it, in 1835, to a rod of deal wood 
passing through several floors of a building in London, and ter¬ 
minating above in a large resonator, which was on the stage of a 
lecture hall. The first experiments in this direction were made 
in 1861, by Philip Reiss, of Friedrichsdorf, Germany. The 
sounds produced by his apparatus were very weak, and possessed 
only one of three essential characteristics of sound—its pitch 
—and therefore was not capable of transmitting articulate 
speech, as in the case of the present speaking telephone, in¬ 
vented by A. Graham Bell, in 1866, which has scarcely been 
improved upon, although many other forms of telephone receiv¬ 
ers have been devised and exhibited 


What is the telephone ? —An apparatus for the transmission 
and reproduction of the human voice, “based upon the magnetic 
effects of currents of electricity flowing around magnets or bars 
of soft iron.” 




TELEGRAPHY. 


i8 7 


What device is used as a se?ider or loudspeaker for the telephoned 
—An instrument termed the “carbon transmitter” or battery 
telephone, based on the principle of the microphone—the for¬ 
mer produced in the summer of 1878, by Mr. F. Blake, and 
now known by the familiar name as the “ Blake transmitter.” 
This apparatus is so arranged as to vary the strength of a cur¬ 
rent of electricity passing through it ; this varying current passing 
through the primary wire of an induction coil, sets up in the 
secondary coil more powerful currents than the Bell instru¬ 
ment produces, thus causing louder and more marked effects 
at the receiving station. 

What is the microphofie ? —An instrument discovered by Pro¬ 
fessor Hughes in 1878, who found a combination of materials 
that were directly affected by sonorous vibrations, which did for 
minute sounds what the microscope had already done for minute 
objects. 

Explain the construction of the Bell telephone or receiver ? —The 
Bell magneto-telephone is almost universally used as a receiver, 
on account of its currents being too feeble to be used as a trans¬ 
mitter. It is very simple in construction. The apparatus con¬ 
sists of a permanent magnet held by a screw in the rear; around 
one end of this magnet is wound a coil of fine insulated copper 
wire (silk covered) the ends of which are attached to the 
larger wires which extend to the rear, and terminate in the bind¬ 
ing screws. In front of the pole and coil is a soft iron disk. 
Finally the whole is enclosed in a hard rubber casing having an 
aperture in front of the disk, which protects the magnet, etc. 
The influence of the magnet induces all around it a magnetic 
field, and the iron diaphragm is attracted towards the poles Any 
alteration in the normal condition of the diaphragm produces 
an alteration in the magnetic field by strengthening or weak¬ 
ening it, and any such alteration of the magnetic field causes the 
induction of a current of electricity in the coil. The strength of 
this induced current is dependent upon the amplitude and rate 


i88 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


of vibration of the disk, and these depend in turn upon the air 
disturbance made by the voice in speaking, or from any other 
similar source. It has been calculated that the current which 
works the telephone is about a thousand million times less than 
the current used in ordinary telegraphic work. 

Explain the action of the carbon or Blake transmitter. —The 
true action of the microphone, or carbon transmitter, is very 
little understood; it introduces into a closed electric circuit, 
through which a current is flowing, a resistance which, varying 
exactly with the sonorous vibrations impinging upon it, causes 
the current to undulate in a way exactly analogous to the vary¬ 
ing sound waves. This effect is generally assumed to be due to 
a greater or less intimacy of electrical contact between two semi¬ 
conducting surfaces abutting upon each other; but there is now 
little doubt that it is due to effects of heat generated by the 
passage of electricity between two points in imperfect contact, 
whose relative distance is variable. Carbon is the best material 
for the purpose—first, because it is inoxidizable and infusible; 
secondly, because it is a poor conductor; and thirdly, because it 
has the remarkable property of having its resistance lowered 
when it is heated—the reverse of metals.—(From a paper by 
Mr. W. H. Preese, recently read before the British association). 

What calling or signalling device is employed l —The magneto 
bell. 

Why is the telephone practically limited in its application ?— 
“ The difficulty of making the telephone a practical instrument 
under all circumstances is not due to any defects in the instru¬ 
ment itself, but to disturbing influences external to it, and con¬ 
sequent on its surroundings. The very perfection and sensi¬ 
tiveness of the apparatus itself are its chief enemies. 

Induction is one of the greatest enemies of the telephone, 
and to it may be traced the greater portion of the difficulties 
which telephone users have in making themselves understood, 
though it is by no means the only source of trouble. Owing to 


TELEGRAPHY. 


189 


induction and leakage, when two or more telephone wires run 
side by side, what is said on one can be overheard on all the 
others; and when a telephone wire extends alongside telegraph 
wires, every current on the telegraph circuit is repeated in the 
telephone, leading to a hissing, frying, bubling sound that is not 
only very irritating, but which on busy lines entirely drowns 
speech.” 

What means have been attei?ipted to cure this evil ?—Many 
attempts have been made but only partially successful. The 
only effective mode of curing the evil at present practically used, 
seems to be that originally devised by Mr. Brooks, of Philadel¬ 
phia, “to employ a complete metallic circuit, so contrived that 
the two wires are in very close proximity to each other, or that 
they twist round each other so as to maintain a mean average 
equality of distance between themselves and the disturbing wires. 
When two wires of a circuit are kept at the same mean distance 
from the disturbing causes, however near they may be, the influ¬ 
ence on each must be identically the same, and as the one is 
used for going, and the other for returning, the similar influences 
must be opposite in direction, and they must therefore neutralize 
each other.” This plan is very generally used in England. 
Mr. W. H. Preese, electrician at the general post office, says: 
“The post office, having laid down many hundreds of miles on 
this system with perfect success, invariably constructs its circuits, 
both underground or overground, in this way. It is, of course, 
more expensive than a single wire, but the great gain—the abso¬ 
lute freedom from overhearing, the privacy, and the absence of 
crackling—is well worth the extra cost. Wires in submarine 
cables are invariably laid up with a twist, so that no special con¬ 
trivance is needed on such wires, and in underground wires not 
laid up together as cables, they are, as a rule, so close to each 
other that twisting is unnecessary ; but for overground purposes 
twisting is essential, and special arrangements have to be carried 
out. Thus, the double-wire system adopted by the post office 


190 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


and by the Societe Generate des Telephones of Paris, not only 
cures the ill-effects of induction, but it materially diminishes the 
disturbing influences of earth conduction. The four-wire sys¬ 
tem of the post office effectually checks leakage from one wire 
to the other, for each wire of the same current is always on a 
different supporting arm. 

Is the double-wire system effective under all ci?rumstances ?— 
“The double-wire system is only absolutely effective so long as 
the insulation is good. The moment insulation fails, connection 
with the earth is made, and then there are disturbing causes, due 
to currents flowing through the ground, which are increased in 
proportion to the deterioration of the insulation. Hence, good 
insulation is essential to telephone working.” 

Why is the telephone practically limited to short lines in its ap¬ 
plication ? —The principal causes are due to the environment of 
the wires employed, the small quantity of electricity possible to 
generate by the power of the human voice, and because of the 
use of an electro-magnet for a receiver. It being well known 
that the element of time is an important matter in the charging 
and discharging of an electro-magnet, it will be readily under¬ 
stood that the great rapidity of these electric charges overtax its 
capacity. Hence, high notes are frequently lost, or so reduced 
in volume as to be scarcely audible. 

It is said conversation has been held in America over 1000 miles ; in Persia it 
has been effected between Tabreez and Tiflis, 390 miles apart; in India, over a 
distance of nearly 500 miles ; In Australia, of 300 miles ; but in all these cases 
it was done either at night or under exceptional circumstances, and in all cases 
the wires were overground. Had they been underground or submarine, the case 
would have been very different. 

Why is the speaking distance practically limited on underground 
or submarine cables ? —Mr. W. H. Preese gives the following 
reasons, which are probably correct: The reason of the 
diminution of speaking distance is due to the electro-static 
capacity of the telegraph line, which absorbs the minute quan¬ 
tity of electricity that makes up the currents employed for 


TELEGRAPHY. 


19:1 

telephonic purposes. In every submarine cable, before a 
signal can be made at the receiving end, the whole cable 
must be charged up with electricity, and if there be not suffi¬ 
cient electricity sent in to effect this purpose, practically no sig¬ 
nal appears at the distant end. With telephone currents on 
long cables, the whole of the electricity is, as it were, swallowed 
up—that is, none of it appears at the distant end, or, if it does 
appear, it is rolled up in one continuous wave, bereft of those 
rapid variations that reproduce sonorous vibrations. The use 
of underground wires very seriously impedes telephonic exten¬ 
sions, and with our present apparatus and present knowledge we 
cannot readily speak over greater distances than twenty miles. 

What system is universally used in carrying out telephone opera¬ 
tions ? —The “ telephone exchange ” system, whereby any sub¬ 
scriber may be placed in communication with another. 

Is the telephone adapted for regular telegraphic business, and is 
there any probability that it will supersede the ordinary telegraphic 
apparatus ?—With the present apparatus and mode of working, 
the telephone is not adapted for regular telegraphic business, and 
is not likely to supersede the ordinary apparatus used in tele¬ 
graphy. Although in Germany it is used very extensively for 
telegraphic business, and to some extent in this and other coun¬ 
tries. But there are many reasons why it is not practicable, so 
much so, that the Western Union Telegraph Company accepts 
messages for telephone offices only at senders' risk. Speed is 
everything in the telegraph. We can telegraph much faster than 
we can speak, and this is of more importance than speech; 
hence any device that retards speed can never take the place of 
the telegraph apparatus; besides this, is its liability to error, and 
it not being practically possible to secure that privacy which the 
telephones require. The telephone, however, is very rapidly 
gaining ground, and as improvements are effected in it and its 
accessories and mode of working, its use will still further extend. 


192 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


PART FOURTH. 


commepwiAL Business. 


Statistics show that the growth of the telegraph business all 
over the world is something extraordinary; the telegraph system 
has become to the world’s inhabitants what the nerve system is 
to the human body. To destroy it would be to paralyze com¬ 
merce, and reduce the traffic between nations one-half. The 
telegraph and ocean cables have become the great channels for 
conveying intelligence, and the medium through which the com¬ 
mercial and financial transactions of the world are carried on. 
The number of messages now sent is vastly superior to that of a 
few years ago, despite the enormous telephonic communication. 

The total length of the wires of the world, including subma¬ 
rine cables, is now 1.510,592, over which more than one hundred 
and forty million messages per annum are being sent. “ There 
are 70,928 miles of submarine cables in successful operation, 
completing the girdle about the world, and conveying millions 
of messages a year. This is the growth of a generation, and, 
almost incomprehensible as it may seem, it is doubtless but the 
beginning of what is to be. It is beyond the limited power of 




TELEGRAPHY. I93 

man to predict the part telegraphy will play in the world’s 
future.” 

The commercial telegraph business of this country is princi¬ 
pally done by the Western Union Telegraph Company, which 
according to President Green’s last annual report, now controls 
over 400,000 miles of wire, and over 12,000 offices, and sent 
the past year 39,000,000 messages, not including messages sent 
over wires leased to the press and to brokers, and a very large 
number of messages sent for railway companies, of which no 
account is taken. 

This combination of the electric industry thus represents a 
vast capital, and must be regarded as the largest and most pow¬ 
erful private telegraphic organization in the world. “ Its board 
of directors includes a larger number of wealthy and successful 
men than can be found at the council table of any other com¬ 
pany in this country, or, indeed, in the world. Aside from the 
individual worth of these directors, estimated at from three to 
four hundred millions of dollars, they administer and control 
interests representing in the aggregate infinitely greater sums, 
employed in all the methods of transportation, and in every 
mercantile pursuit. In short, with a few exceptions, the direc¬ 
tory is a body of magnates such as has never before been got 
together in the management of one enterprise.” 

The stalwart form of competition, however, is rapidly push¬ 
ing to the front in opposition. And what the future may wit 
ness in telegraphic development, it is impossible to foresee. 

“The United States originated the telegraphic system and is 
still in the lead, according to the testimony of Mr. Pender, an 
English member of Parliament, and probably the best living au¬ 
thority on the telegraphic systems of the old world. He has just 
finished a thorough inspection of our system, and says there is 
none any place more thoroughly conducted or better calculated 
to meet public requirements. More messages are sent to each 
one hundred inhabitants in the United States than in any other 


194 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


country in the world except England, where the telegraphic sys¬ 
tem is under the control of the government the same as the 
postal system. From this standpoint it looks as though the 
time will come in the near future when a great bulk of the world’s 
intercourse will be by telegraph.” 


The information compiled regarding commercial business, 
has been carefully selected from a large amount of material, 
gathered together from official sources, as well as from the ex¬ 
perience of efficient operators in all grades of service, and it is 
therefore submitted as co?nplete y trustworthy, and comprehensive 
as brevity will permit. 


SECTION XXXVIII. 

MANAGEMENT OF COMMERCIAL OFFICES. 

Main offices —.In cities the main office is generally divided 
into two departments. The receiving and delivery department 
in the basement and the operating room on an upper floor. 

The manager .—Each office is in charge of a manager, usually 
appointed by and under the jurisdiction of the district superin¬ 
tendent, to whom he is accountable for the proper performance 
of his duties, and those of his subordinates. 

The working force of a large office —Consists of the following: 
The manager, the cashier, the bookkeepers, delivery and re¬ 
ceiving clerks, chief operator and assistants, the traffic chief, the 
operating force, the messenger service, and the battery or gen¬ 
eral utility man. 

Managers of branch offices. —They are, in the same city or town, 
unless otherwise especially arranged, required to report to the 
manager of the main office therein, to abide by all the rules and 
regulations respecting the ordinary transactions of the business 




TELEGRAPHY. 


*95 


of the main office; to produce daily all messages which have 
been sent, copies of all messages received, and account to him, 
daily, for all moneys received in the transaction of business. 

Responsibility of managers. —They are held responsible for all 
property belonging to their offices, and are required to exercise 
great economy in the use of all supplies, and are responsible for 
all money received and disbursed, except when a cashier is ap¬ 
pointed for the purpose, who in such cases is held responsible for 
the money. 

Receipts. —The funds of the company are held subject to the 
order of the treasurer, who designates places of deposit. 

Deposits. —In every place where there is an incorporated bank 
in good standing, and which has been designated by the treas¬ 
urer as a place of deposit, the manager is required, unless other¬ 
wise directed by the treasurer, to deposit in such bank, daily, 
all the cash on hand at the close of banking hours, in his name 
as office manager of the company he represents, and should 
make arrangements with such banks, if practicable, to provide 
drafts on New York, for their monthly balances, without charge. 

Remittances. —All balances due from offices must be remitted 
to the treasurer at the end of each month, unless otherwise 
specially ordered by him. No balances should remain unpaid, 
but each month’s business must be promptly closed up and set¬ 
tled by itself. Remittances to the treasurer must be made 
through the mail by draft on New York, payable to the treas¬ 
urer’s order, by all managers who are able to obtain New York 
drafts without expense. Managers in places where banking ar¬ 
rangements cannot be effected, are required to remit either cur¬ 
rency by express or postal money orders by mail, as shall be 
most economical, and an explanatory letter enclosed with every 
remittance stating on what account it applies. 

Expenditures. —Managers of offices are prohibited from pur¬ 
chasing or paying out any money for office furniture, repairs of 


196 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


office, or anything therein, stationery or supplies, or for any other 
purpose except to pay fixed monthly salaries of employes, rent 
of offices, light, and fuel. 

Any outlay for fitting up, re-fitting, furnishing or re-furnishing 
of any office, must be made only by special approval of the 
district superintendent, who is required to have the sanction 
of the general superintendent for such expenditures. 

Salaries. —Salaries are paid monthly, at the close of each 
month, and no increase is allowed unless previously authorized 
by the general superintendent. 

Vouchers. —A voucher for every authorized expenditure, writ¬ 
ten upon the blank form provided for this purpose, numbered 
to correspond with its entry on the monthly account current, 
and made out so as to fully and clearly explain itself, must be 
sent with the account current to the district superintendent. 

Every voucher should be written with ink and signed by the 
person to whom the payment is due. Vouchers receipted by 
“ his X mark ” must be witnessed by some person other than 
the one disbursing the money. 

Requisitions for supplies —are required to be made on the 
proper blank provided for that purpose once in three months, 
and should be carefully estimated and forwarded to the proper 
official. 

Material not in use. —All instruments, relays, keys, switches, 
or parts of the same not in use, and all refuse zinc and copper 
from main or local batteries, and all old books, messages, or 
other material on hand, must be reported to the superintendent 
every quarter. 

Office hours. —A competent person to receive messages from 
the public is required to be in attendance at 7 o’clock a. m. 
from March until November, and as early as 7:30 o'clock during 
the winter, and 9 to 10 a. m. Sundays unless otherwise ordered. 
In cities principal offices are kept open daily—day and night. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


197 


The office hours assigned each employe are arranged as the ser¬ 
vice requires, and absence from duty within these hours is not 
permitted, except by authority of the superintendent, and in all 
cases deduction is made for loss of time. 

Holidays. —On the national holidays of the year, as the Fourth 
of July, Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Year’s Day, the 
hours of service are usually from 8 to 10 a. m., and from 4 to 6 
p. m., except at repeating stations and principal offices, which 
keep open as usual, but with such diminished force as may be 
sufficient for the service. 

Whenever a manager vacates his office during the month , he must 
make up his accounts and pay over to his successor all funds in 
his hands, and send to his superintendent a report of such set¬ 
tlement, made up on the proper blank form, with the receipt of 
his successor for money paid and property delivered. 


SECTION XXXIX. 

THE OPERATING DEPARTMENT. 

Regulations. —All persons employed in the operating depart¬ 
ment must conform to such regulations as the manager may 
deem necessary for the prompt and proper transaction of busi¬ 
ness. 

Chief operators. —The chief operator is intrusted with the 
ordinary working of the lines, testing and changing of circuits, 
and the directing of operators and repairers. 

Office calls. —Every telegraph office has a different name or 
call on the same circuit, which usually consists of one or two 
letters ; these calls or signals are made use of in arresting atten¬ 
tion of the different stations as desired. Thus, the call for New 
York is N. Y.; Cleveland, H. If New York desires to commu¬ 
nicate with Cleveland, he repeats the latter call on the line until 



198 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


answered. It is proper to sign one’s own office every three or 
five calls, so that others may know who is using the wire. 

If Cleveland hears the call, he opens his key, and answers by 
repeating “ i ” several times, and signing his own call. 

When so answered, New York proceeds with his business. 
The process is exactly the same between any other two offices. 

Writing one's own office call. —This is termed “ signing and 
must be done once and only once at the close of everything that is 
written over a line, be it calling, answering calls, giving “ O K,” 
sending messages, or conversing. 

Caution. —Before opening a key to call another station, adjust 
the relay carefully, particularly in wet weather, to make sure that 
no other office is using the line, and in calling another office, 
care must be taken to see that the relay is adjusted to receive 
the acknowledgment. 

Co?itesti?ig for circuit. —This is strictly forbidden, and any 
operator guilty of it should be promptly reported to his superin¬ 
tendent by any person having knowledge of the fact. 

Testing. —At all offices where line repairers are stationed, an 
operator must be on hand, before the departure of the first 
morning train, to test the wires, and in case of faults, to direct 
the repairer to place the lines in working order at the earliest 
practicable moment. The circuit manager or chief operator at 
all terminal points, is required to test the wires thoroughly and 
have the circuits arranged for business by 7:30 o’clock a. m., 
and operators at intermediate offices must report to, and 
promptly obey, all instructions from the circuit manager in re¬ 
gard to the working or testing of the wires. 

No admittance to operating roo?ns. —In order to preserve the 
stric t privacy of all messages, no person, unless in the employ 
of the company, is permitted to enter the operating rooms or 
other private offices, except upon the written permission of an 
officer of the company. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


199 


Closing offices temporarily or for the night. —Intermediate or 
way offices are not permitted to close for the night without first 
clearing their files, ascertaining from the nearest repeating offices 
if there is any business for them, and exchanging “G N ” (good 
night) therewith. 

When any office is closed temporarily, or for the night, instru¬ 
ments must be cut out of the circuit, and the switch or cut-off 
examined to make sure that the circuit is complete through it. 


SECTION XL. 

MESSAGES.-GENERAL INFORMATION. 

The regulations governing the service of a telegraph com¬ 
pany are intended for the protection of its interests, and not to 
repel business offered; but rules cannot be framed to meet every 
question which may arise, therefore whenever the letter of a 
regulation cannot be met, an intelligent interpretation of its 
spirit becomes a duty. 


Telegraph message. —A telegraphic communication sent from 
one person to another similar in form to that of letters. 

Messages , how divided. —Messages may be divided into five 
parts, viz.: check, date, address, body, and signature. 

The check. —The check immediately precedes the date, and 
gives the number of words in the message subject to tariff. It 
aids in preventing omissions and errors. The check also tells 
whether a message is paid, collect, or free,—if free, it usually 
explains why. 

The date. —The date is composed of the name of the place 
where the message originates, the month, the day of the month, 
and the year. An operator accepting a commercial message for 
transmission, should be careful that this is written out in full. 




200 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


In actual transmission, the month and year are always omit* 
ted. It can do no harm to write the name in full, and the date 
should always be given in commercial business. This is always 
done when the message goes beyond the line where it origi¬ 
nates. In sending a message, the date is always prefixed by 
“from” abbreviated to Fm. or Fr. 

Sometimes on the same line the office call is only given, in¬ 
stead of spelling out the name of the place. 

The Address. —Messages must bear one clear and sufficient 
address to a single person or firm, together with the street, num¬ 
ber and place of its destination, which will not be counted or 
charged for. A single message addressed to two persons for 
separate delivery is refused. Where a message is addressed to 
two or more persons for delivery to one only, all names except 

the first is charged for. An address to Mr. and Mrs.- 

will be accepted as a single address. The number of a street in 
an address should be written in words. The word “to” always 
precedes the address, and a period divides it from the body of 
the message. When the office to which a message goes is on 
the same line, usually only the office call is written, but when the 
message goes through, the destination is spelled out in full. No 
message must be accepted addressed to any person at a specified 
telegraph station with directions to transmit, if absent, to any 
other station. In such cases two messages must be sent, one to 
each place. 

The body. —The body is embraced between the period and sig¬ 
nature. No abbreviations are permitted, or if inserted, each letter 
is charged for ; compound words are usually considered one word. 

The signature. —The name of the person or firm, sending the 
message, and in transmission is always prefixed by Sig., which 
enables the receiving operator to place the signature in its proper 
place on his copy. 

Tariff books and the Journal of the Telegraph. —Each office is 



TELEGRAPHY. 


201 


furnished with a tariffbook, giving the rates; and the Journal of 
the Telegraph, the official paper of the Western Union Telegraph 
Company, is forwarded monthly to all offices of that company, and 
managers are required to carefully read and study all executive 
orders printed therein, and note same in their tariff books, also 
to carefully note all changes of tariff, names of new offices 
opened, and offices closed, and such answers to correspondents 
as improve or modify existing regulations, relating to the trans¬ 
mission and handling of commercial business. 

Rates , classification of. —The Western Union rates are local, 
special, square, State and night rates. 

The local and special rates are exceptions to the square and 
State rates, and are given by special instructions through the 
district superintendent’s office, or direct from the tariff bureau to 
the offices between which they apply. 

Rates , how ascertained. —To ascertain the rate to a Western 
Union office, to which there is no special or local rate, note first 
the number of the square before the name of the office, and 
then refer to the tariff sheet, showing square and State rates ; if 
there is a rate to the number noted, which is less than the State 
rate to the State, Territory, or Province in which the office is 
situated, the square rate will be the rate desired. If there is no 
rate to that number, or if the rate given is higher than the State 
rate, then the latter will be the rate desired. 

To calculate the tariff to a point on another company’s line .— 
Find the rate to the transfer office, and add to it the rate be¬ 
tween point of transfer and point of destination, for the full 
tariff; always check the transfer office. When a message passes 
over one or several lines, the charges must be all prepaid or all 
collect. 

Government rates. —A special rate on Government messages 
between the officers and agents of the United States, of one 
cent per word (except the name of the place where the message 


202 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


originates and the date) is charged for each circuit of 500 miles 
via the shortest practical route. In computing circuits, if there 
is one or more circuits and a fraction of a circuit, such fraction 
is deemed a circuit, and any distance less than 500 miles is 
deemed a circuit. When the rate computed exceeds the ordi¬ 
nary rate charged the public, then the Government rate is not ap¬ 
plied. All messages of less than twenty-five words, address and 
signature included, is rated as if containing twenty-five words, 
and all messages exceeding twenty-five words is rated by the ex¬ 
act number of words they contain, address and signature in¬ 
cluded. 

System of Checks .—The former custom of transmitting the 
amount of tariff on a message has been abandoned by most 
companies, except in cases where a message comes collect, from 
a foreign line, to be forwarded. The tariff for each line is then 
given in the check, thus—10 collect 50 and 50. 

By the new system, both the sending and receiving operators 
calculate the checks, and enter it on their message and books. 

examples : 

For a paid message of nine words, the check should read : 

9—Pd. 

For a collect message: 9—Col. 

For a free message on account of pass: 9, pass, No. 101. 
(Number of pass not transmitted.) 

For a free message, account of operator—9, Dh., operator. 

Basis for coiinti?ig words .—Ten words is the basis. Upon 
full paid business, ten words can be sent as cheaply as one, but 
for all over ten, an additional rate (per word) is charged. The 
date, address and signature of a message are not counted. The 
body of the message is always counted. 

Charges .—Every message must bear the signature of the per¬ 
son or firm sending it, which is not counted, or chargtd for. 
Additional signatures, addresses, and all other words after the 


TELEGRAPHY. 


203 


signature must be counted and charged for, if to be transmitted. 
In all such cases receiving clerks should inquire whether trans¬ 
mission is desired, and if not, the added words should be erased, 
but in such manner as not to entirely obscure them. When there 
are several distinct signatures, all but the last one are counted 
and charged for. When extra w r ords occur after the body 
(regular signature excepted), the number of such extra words 
must be given in the check. Titles, however, not exceeding two 
words, such as cashier, president, manager, chairman, general 
superintendent, chief police, etc., are not charged for. In 
messages sent collect, the word collect must be counted, but not 
charged for. Upon night or “red” messages the same rule 
applies. 

Rules for counting words. —Names of cities and places, when 
used to designate such cities or places, are counted as one word; 
for example, New York, New Orleans, West Troy, United States. 

Names .—Names of persons and places, initial letters, titles, 
etc., when given to things, are to be counted according to the 
number of words or distinct separate signs used to express them. 
The prefixes, O, Me, Van, Von, De, Le, La, are regarded as 
forming a part of the word following them; as McGrigor, 
O’Connor, DeWitt. Each initial is counted as one word, ex¬ 
cept a. m. and p. M., meaning respectively forenoon and after¬ 
noon; C. O. D. and F. O. B. are each three words. 

Words connected by a hyphen , found in dictionaries, composed 
of two or more distinct words, as forming a single word, are 
counted as so many different words, and no hyphen will be ac¬ 
cepted as forming a part of any word or message. Example— 
man-of-war, three words. The words today , tonight, tomorrow , 
railroad, railway, a?iyhow, anywhere, anything, everything, are 
recognized English words, and are to be counted as such, unless 
separated into distinct words by the writer. The words dont, 
wont, cant , shant , although not correctly written without the use 
of apostrophes, are in common use, and may be received as one 


204 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


word when no apostrophe is employed. The same rule will ap¬ 
ply to contracted words, or words in the possessive, such as 
Eddies , Cousins , Edwards. If such words are written as in the 
expression “ Hope Eddies well,” they will be sent as one word. 
In some instances, however, the custom of operators has made 
the exception a better guide than the rule. 

When messages contain amounts , dates, or numbers , the sender 
should be requested to write them plainly in words. If such 
amounts, dates, or numbers, after being written in words, be also 
duplicated in figures by the customer, such figures must be 
counted as part of the message, according to the number of 
words employed to express them, and included in the check and 
paid for. Figures are, however, allowed in the free date of a 
message. 

Code ?nessages. —code message is composed of words found 
in ordinary dictionaries or gazetteers, but disarranged, or having 
a secret meaning. Such messages are transmitted at ordinary 
tariff rates. 

EXAMPLE. 

(Check) 7 paid. Cleveland, O., Dec. 12, 1882. 

(To) Robert Smith. 

New York. 

Lenity nervous Madrid powder Dolores publish, Mexico. 

(Sig.) Erown & Co. 

Cipher ?nessages. —A cipher message is composed in whole, or 
in part, of figures, letters, characters, or words not contained 
in dictionaries or gazetteers, or a combination of either, or 
all, having no sense unless interpreted by means of the key in 
possession of the sender and receiver. 

example: 

(Check) 15 paid, cipher. Cleveland, O., Dec. 12, 1882. 
(To) Robert Smith, 

New York. 

Lenity 23456 hgbcmo 72k3 powerful bcdefgkrmna 9397368. 

(Sig) Brown & Co. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


205 

To count cipher messages. —In cipher messages, count first the 
number of words in each group allowing three figures or letters 
to a word, thus: in the first group given in the example, the figures 
“ 2 3456 ” count as two words: the letters “hgbcmo” count as 
two words: the group “72k3” count as two words; the letters 
“bcdefgkrmna” count as four words; the figures “9397368’’ 
count as three words, in all thirteen. To the number thus ob¬ 
tained add the ordinary words (“lenity” and “powerful”) in 
the message, making in all fifteen words. 

Marks of punctuation if intended for transmission will be 
included in the count, as if they were figures or letters. 

The word cipher should appear in the check as in the example. 

No extra charge will be made for cipher messages. 

In ordinary messages the receiving operator has the context to help him to 
make out imperfectly transmitted words, but in code and cipher messages every 
letter must be transmitted with exactness. 

Telegraph bulls. —Telegraphic errors, blunders, mistakes in 
messages. 

Information respecting messages. —Managers of offices must 
give no information respecting messages or their contents, or by 
whom they have been sent or received. Ingenious questions are 
sometimes asked to draw out information, to be used for impro¬ 
per personal advantage, or to the injury of others. All ques¬ 
tions, therefore, such as, “Has A. B. sent a message? ” “ Was 

the answer to E. F.’s message all right?” “Did C. E. get a 
message this morning?” must not be replied to. 

Privacy of itiessages. —All messages, including press reports, 
must be treated as strictly confidential, and must not be shown, 
nor any information given respecting them or their contents, ex¬ 
cept those to whom they are addressed, nor make the contents 
of messages the subject of conversation or remarks. 

Neither must the books or papers be examined by any person 


206 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


not connected with the company, except by order of an executive 
officer. 

The executive committee of the Western Union Telegraph Company recently 
adopted the following resolution: “Any officer, clerk, operator, or other employe 
handling messages, who shall report or divulge the contents of such messages to 
any officer of the company, or other person, shall be promptly dismissed from 
the service of the company, and prosecuted under the law, making it a penal 
offense to divulge the contents of messages. 

Fe?ialties for divulgi?ig co?itents of messages. —The following 
are the provisions of the new penal code: 

§ 641. A person who, either 

1. Wrongfully obtains, or. attempts to obtain, any knowledge 
of a telegraphic message by connivance with a clerk, operator^ 
messenger, or other employe of a telegraph company; or 

2. Being such clerk, operator, messenger, or other employe, 
wilfully divulges to any but the person for whom it was intended, 
the contents of a telegraphic message or dispatch intrusted to 
him for transmission or delivery, or the nature thereof, or wilfully 
refuses or neglects duly to transmit or deliver the same, is punish¬ 
able by a fine of not more than one thousand dollars, or by im¬ 
prisonment for not more than six months, or by both such fine 
and imprisonment. 

§ 642. A person who wilfully and without authority, either 

1. Opens or reads, or causes to be opened or read, a sealed 
letter or telegram, or 

2. Publishes the whole or any portion of such letter or tele¬ 
gram, knowing it to have been opened or read without authority. 

Is guilty of a misdemeanor. 

Forged message. —In many of the States there is a severe 
penalty for forwarding a message known to be forged. 

Jury duty. —As a rule, operators actively employed are free 
from military and jury duty.— Joiirnal of the Telegraph. 

Furnishing copies of or certifying to correct?iess of any message .— 
All managers and other employes are strictly prohibited from 


TELEGRAPHY. 


207 


furnishing copies of original messages, or from certifying to the cor¬ 
rectness of any message, or copy thereof, whether sent or received. 

When the sender or receiver of a message applies in person, 
he will, if known, or properly identified, be permitted to see or 
make a copy of his dispatch for himself. When the application 
is in writing, the signature must be identified as the genuine 
signature of the person, or firm, who sent it, precisely as if it 
were the signature of a bank check or draft. In no other case 
will such permission be allowed, without the order of an execu¬ 
tive officer. 

Payment of messages .—All messages, except answers or cov¬ 
ered by a pass, must be prepaid , unless guaranteed by a responsi¬ 
ble party. Messages on the business of the party sending, and 
answers to collect messages must invariably be prepaid. Mes¬ 
sages addressed to hotels or to parties absent from home, must 
be prepaid in all cases, unless they are answers to messages, 
marked answer prepaid. Transient persons sending messages 
which require answers, must deposit in advance an amount suf¬ 
ficient to pay for a reply of ten words. Usually a charged ac¬ 
count is kept with reliable business firms, and payment made 
monthly. 

Profane or obscene language .—Messages containing profane or 
obscene language are not received for transmission. 

Office messages .—Office messages are used to assist in the 
prompt transaction of business and correction of errors, and have 
preference over any other business; but they must neither be 
needlessly sent nor contain unnecessary or superfluous words. 

Night or “ red ” messages are such as do not require, and are 
understood by the senders not to require, delivery until the fol¬ 
lowing day; or, such as when received on Saturday, delivery is 
not expected until the following Monday. Such messages must 
be written upon the night message blanks, under and subject to 
the conditions printed thereon, and may be accepted from the 


208 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


public any time during the day, to be transmitted at night , at a 
fixed rate considerably less than day rates; but when the day 
rate is less than twenty-five and two, the night message rate is 
the same as the day rate. 

Red. —These messages are called “red” because the blanks are 
printed in that color to distinguish the night messages from 
ordinary business. 

Check errors. —A great source of discrepancies between offices 
arises from “ check errors and checks being changed in the 
transmission of messages. 

The first effort, on the discovery of such an error, should be 
to collect the charges at one of the offices concerned. This 
can usuallv be done, if action is taken when the error is first 
discovered. 

Monthly error sheets. —Each month the auditor of the com¬ 
pany gives notice of check errors. When an office receives an 
error sheet, the books and files must be carefully examined, and 
if no errors are found, a statement must be made and sent by 
mail to each office with which they differ. And on receiving 
such a statement from any other office, the same must be com¬ 
pared with the books, and where a disagreement is found, the 
“signature,” “address,” and “check” of messages causing the 
difference must be given, and the same returned to the office 
from which the statement was received, with such explanations 
as can be given. A memorandum of all correspondence con¬ 
cerning errors, should be kept. This may be conveniently done, 
in most cases, on the margin of record sheets. The wires 
should not be used in settling errors, except in extreme cases. 
Postal cards may be used with much advantage, but addresses 
and signatures of messages must not be written on them. 

State?ne?its regarding errors. —The statement that such a mes¬ 
sage was “received paid,” or “ sent collect,” is not accepted as 
a satisfactory explanation of a “ deficit ,” but a full written state- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


209 


ment of all the particulars, accompanied by the copies of the 
message, are required, and the error sheet returned to the super¬ 
intendent as soon as possible, with the explanations, or money, 
to cover the deficits. Explanations should be written in ink, on 
a separate sheet, and accompanied by the statements of the dis¬ 
agreeing offices, as vouchers. 

Abbreviations are used in conversation, office messages, rail¬ 
road business and news reports, and are usually made by drop¬ 
ping out the vowel sounds, and leaving the consonant skeleton. 
Some are, however, entirely arbitrary. They are, however, 
easily acquired in actual business. 

Free messages. —Annual franks are issued to certain persons 
who are entitled to send messages free. These franks are of 
two classes, viz: the business frank and the complimentary frank. 
Each frank is numbered, and states on its face the name of the 
person to whom it is issued, the class of messages, limit of terri¬ 
tory, and period of time it is valid. 

The business frank designates upon its face the particular kind 
of business to be sent free. 

The complimentary fra 7 ik entitles the holder to transmit brief 
messages of a domestic or social character to his family and 
friends, but does not cover any description of business, political 
or other messages. 

Free messages on account of franks. —When such messages are 
presented, the frank must be shown and examined, and the 
number noted on the message directly after the check, but not 
sent over the line. 

Free messages without franks. —Official messages, private mes¬ 
sages of an urgent social character by employes (approved by 
the manager of an office), and messages on railroad business on 
the line of the road, except for points beyond the line, which 
require a pass or to be paid for. 

Record of free messages .—All free messages must be entered 


210 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


daily on a blank record sheet provided for the purpose, and at 
the end of the month a free message report made out and sent 
to the superintendent, including the original messages; and the 
amount of tariff which would have been chargeable, had the 
message been paid for, and the reason for sending free, must be 
endorsed upon each message, except official business and mes¬ 
sages upon railroad business between local points on the line of 
any road. 

Preserving messages. —All messages must be carefully filed, so 
as to make reference thereto easy and expeditious. Each day’s 
business should be kept separate, and every message marked 
with a number corresponding to its number in the Register 
Book. Each day’s business, plainly marked, should be enclosed 
together and labelled. These packages must be retained at 
least two years, after which they will be disposed of as the super¬ 
intendent may direct. Any use of old messages by which their 
contents are, or may be, exposed to the public, or otherwise 
than herein directed, is absolutely forbidden. 

The Western Union Telegraph Company , “ money orders ” 
by telegraph. —For the accommodation of travellers and others, 
in emergencies, and incidentally to facilitate its own business 
the Western Union Telegraph Company will make transfers of 
money, in small amounts, containing no fractions of a dollar, 
between a limited number of its offices. Only principal offices, 
or offices which are designated as money order offices, are per¬ 
mitted to do this kind of business. The system is simple; thus 
if a party in Cleveland desires to send money to New York, he 
deposits the amount in the Cleveland office, pays a slight per¬ 
centage, notifies the party in New York, and the company there 
pay out the funds to whoever directed, cipher dispatches being 
used, and precautions taken that guard against imposition. 
Nothing but cash is received, and the business conducted on a 
purely cash basis. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


2 II 


Charges .—To cover clerical and incidental services, a charge 
is made of one per cent, on all sums of $25 or over, and for 
smaller amounts such charge is 25 cents in each case. 

As the usual telegraphic service necessary for each transfer 
exceeds two telegrams of 15 words each, a further charge is 
made for this service of a sum not exceeding double the tolls on 
a single message of 15 words between the transfer places. 

Money transfers can also be made between the transfer offices 
of this company and the transfer offices of the Great North 
Western Telegraph Company of Canada. The charge for each 
transfer is two per cent, on all sums of $25 or over, and for 
smaller amounts, 50 cents in each case, and double tolls at 
regular day rates on a single message of 15 words between the 
remitting and paying office. 

Payment of the sums transferred .—Payment is made at the 
principal office of the Telegraph Company at the point desig¬ 
nated, upon satisfactory evidence of the personal identity of 
the payee. The sending of a telegram requesting transfer of 
money to its sender will not be sufficient evidence of his identity 
with the payee of such transfer. 

In case payment is not made to the payee within 48 hours 
after receipt of the transfer message by the manager of the pay¬ 
ing office (exclusive of Sundays and holidays), the transfer will 
be cancelled, and the amount thereof refunded to the sender on 
application at the receiving office, and in such case the amount 
received for services and tolls will be retained by the telegraph 
company. 

In cases where an applicant desires to transfer money to a point at which 
there is no transfer office, but which can be reached from a transfer office in its 
vicinity, by express or other transportation company, the proper course to 
pursue would be to explain to the applicant that the company cannot under¬ 
take to pay out money at points where it has no transfer offices, and that the 
only way in which he can accomplish his object will be to make the order 
payable to the express or other transportation company, direct, and send 
a separate paid message of instructions, as to the disposal of the funds to such 


212 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


company. This will relieve the telegraph company from all responsibility be¬ 
yond paying the money to the company as payee in the application and taking 
its receipts therefor. 

Associated press reports. —A large proportion of the night work 
in cities consists in receiving the associated press dispatches ; a 
combination of wires is so arranged that a large number of cities 
receive the reports simultaneously. These are copied on mani¬ 
fold paper, enabling the operator to make the required number 
at one writing, and these copies sent as rapidly as received di¬ 
rectly to the newspaper offices, where they soon find their way 
into print. 

Explain the character and mode of operation of the associated 
press. —The associated press is practically a central news ex¬ 
change, with branch associations for local purposes in various 
cities, all governed by the same object, of getting the most and 
freshest news, while the cost of distribution is divided among all 
the members. The branch associations collect the news within 
their respective territories and forward it to New York, whence 
it is redistributed by telegraph all over the country among the 
voting members and customers not members. 

U?iited States signal service weather reports. —By arrangement 
with the telegraph companies, a system of telegraphic circuits 
for the transmission of weather reports, is formed at a stated 
hour each morning, afternoon, and midnight, connecting certain 
defined places, to be worked without relaying, which has the 
effect of converging the reports at the same instant of time, by 
various paths upon the central office, “Washington,” where the 
synopsis and indications are made up, and distributed from the 
telegraph rooms of that office through the associated press to 
the signal observers in the different commercial centers of the 
United States, and to the public press of the country. 

Reports of stock, cotton, and produce quotations. —These quota¬ 
tions, sporting news, and items in regard to financial and com¬ 
mercial changes, gathered at all the most important centers of 


TELEGRAPHY. 


213 


information in the United States and Europe, through the agency 
of experienced reporters of the Gold and Stock Telegraph com¬ 
pany, are transmitted over the wires of the Western Union and 
Atlantic cables, and furnished, by means of printing telegraph 
instruments, called the “ticker” or “stock indicator,” to boards 
of trade, exchanges, chambers of commerce, hotels, and pri¬ 
vate subscribers, at their places of business. 


SECTION XLI. 

TRANSMISSION OF MESSAGES. 

Blanks for transmission .—All telegraph companies require 
messages for transmission to be written upon the printed blanks 
under the conditions on which the company transmit all mes¬ 
sages. Whenever this is impracticable, the operator must attach 
it permanently to the face of the blank, so as to leave the printed 
heading in full view immediately above the message. 

When requested, operators can write the body of messages, 
but are not permitted to transmit them unless left in writing and 
signed by the person or persons sending them. If the address 
of a patron is not known, it should be secured in order to facil¬ 
itate delivery, etc. 

Reception of messages for transmission. —All messages present¬ 
ed for transmission should be carefully read to the customer , and 
every word clearly understood by the receiver. If the address 
is insufficient, a more complete one giving street and number, or 
occupation, should be requested. All abbreviations should be 
avoided, and anything likely to be misunderstood or liable to 
occasion error in transmission, must be made perfectly plain 
before it is accepted for transmission. When a message 
contains words incorrectly spelled, the receiver should court¬ 
eously call attention thereto, and endeavor to have them cor¬ 
rected. This must be done discreetly, to avoid offence, but is 



214 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


important, to prevent error in transmission. When the message 
has been duly accepted and paid for, the time of its reception 
must be noted on the blank , with the initial of the receiver. The 
number of words, amount of tolls and the word paid, collect, or 
free, as may properly designate the message, must also be noted 
thereon. Operating rooms in cities are always private, receiving 
clerks in separate offices, transacting business with the public. 

Transient patroiis. —“Transient persons sending messages 
which require answers, must deposit in advance an amount suf¬ 
ficient to pay for a reply of ten words. In such cases, the signal 
“33” should be sent with the message, signifying that the an¬ 
swer is prepaid.” In all cases when a party offering a message 

m 

containing a greater number than ten words, as a prepaid answer, 
the receiver should notify the party that such excess was beyond 
the limit and must be prepaid, or a sufficient guarantee be given 
to secure the company from loss. In cases where a party offers 
a message for transmission, pertaining to his own business, which 
reads as though an answer was required, but states that he will 
not pay for an answer, should any come, the proper course to 
take, will be to send the message, and with it an office message 
stating that no answer w r as required, but if one w>as offered, to 
require that it should be prepaid. 

Deposit for a “prepaid answer”—length of time before returned. 
—Where parties have deposited money for an answer, and none 
is received within a reasonable time, an office message should 
be sent to the office to which the original message was addressed, 
stating that the party wffio has deposited the money for an answer 
demands the amount returned, and that, unless the answer is 
received within a specified time, it will be returned, and that 
your office will not be responsible for the tolls upon the answer 
after such a time. But the money deposited must not be 
returned until it is certain beyond a doubt that the office from 
which the answer is due understands that the prepayment is 
withdrawn. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


2 *$ 


Order of transmission. —“Messages received for transmission 
are forwarded in the order in which they are received, with as 
little delay as possible—hence the questions: When will this 
message be sent ? Will this message be sent at once ? or, Please 
rush this, can only be answered by the above statement.” Man¬ 
agers and receivers are strictly forbidden to make any promise of 
transmission or delivery of any message under any circumstan¬ 
ces, beyond the assurance that due diligence will be used in for¬ 
warding to destination. 

Messages transmitted as written. —Messages must be sent as 
they are written. And to follow copy is the only safe rule. 
Corrections can only be made in the presence of the sending 
party. The subject, however, is one which appeals to the intel¬ 
ligence of a manager. 

Where periods and other punctuation marks are used, care 
must be taken to transmit them precisely as in the original 
When obscure or difficult words occur in messages, the trans¬ 
mission must be slow and distinct, and the obscure sentence or 
difficult words repeated after the signature. Great caution 
should be used in the transmission of proper names. They 
should be written slowly, and double the usual space left be¬ 
tween the initials. Words containing spaced letters, like C, O, 
R, Z, should be transmitted with caution, and such letters made 
plain, separate and distinct 

Messages to be forwarded. —When a person expecting a mes¬ 
sage at any office is obliged to leave such office before its 
arrival, and desires it to be forwarded to him at another office, 
the tolls thereon, except in the case of well known and responsi¬ 
ble persons, must be prepaid. Whenever messages which have 
come over the line of any other telegraph company are offered 
at points not indicated by the tariff book as the proper place for 
such business to reach the lines, or whenever messages are 
received by mail at any office to be forwarded by telegraph, or 
in case a person having received a message requests the same 


2l6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


to be forwarded to any other place, or in case a person leaves 
town before the arrival of an expected message, and it is for¬ 
warded to him, or whenever under any circumstances a message 
is to be sent from any office, bearing a date other than that on 
which it is sent, or place from, other than that of the office from 
which it is forwarded, the name of the place where it originated 
and the date must be charged for. 

Example. —If a message from Buffalo, Nov. 15, to Cleveland 
be received after the party addressed had left town, and a 
request made that it be forwarded to Cincinnati, the date of the 
message would be sent as follows : “ Buffalo, Nov. 15, via 

Cleveland , Nov. 15.” Thus adding in and charging for, as apart 
of the message, the three words and figures, “ Buffalo, Nov. 15.” 

Responsibility of operators in sending messages. —A careful and 
correct style of transmission is of far more value than mere 
rapidity. Operators are held responsible for the correct trans¬ 
mission of all dispatches entrusted to them. They will there¬ 
fore see the necessity of exercising the utmost care in reading 
the original messages correctly, as well as in accurately trans¬ 
mitting and copying them. In the transmission and receiving 
of messages, operators are to assume nothing. 

Messages betwee?i employes and upon company business. —These, 
are sent without checks and with much less formality than com¬ 
mercial messages. 

Duty before sending a message. —Call the office and receive a 
response. 

Order and form of the trans 7 nissio?i of a ?nessage. —1st. The 

number. — 2nd. The initial of the operator sending. — 3d. 
The check. — 4th. The place from, and date. — 5th. The 
address, followed by a period. — 6th. The body of the message. 
— 7th. The signature, followed by address (if any) of signature, 
or any other special directions. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


217 


EXAMPLE : 

Form of ordinary message as it should he received from the customer. 

Cleveland, O., Jan. 17th, 1883. 

To Cftas. Jones, 

Palmer House, Chicago, Ill. 

Books sent by American Express. Please accept thanks for 
order. 

John Smith. 

As transmitted: 

No 1—J—10 Pd (* Fr) Cleveland O 17 

(* To) Chas Jones 

Palmer House Chicago Ill. 

Books sent by American Express. Please accept thanks for 

order. 

(* Sig) John Smith 

(* SY) 

(* Not copied by the receiver.) 

Endorsements. —The number, time sent, and initials of both 
the sending and receiving operators must be endorsed on the 
message as soon as sent. When two or more messages are sent, 
one after the other, this is usually done with the left hand while 
sending with the right; sometimes “ ahr ” is given at the end of 
each message to give the receiving operator warning that another 
follows. 

Acknowledgment of a message when sent .—When an operator 
is through sending a message, or messages, the receiver acknowl¬ 
edges the same by “OK,” his initial letter and office call, or com¬ 
mences to send back business. No message is regarded as sent 
without this acknowledgment. If it is not given the sending 
operator will call the office again, and when a response is given, 
ascertain the cause, then if the business was not received OK, 
he will repeat it. 

The origin of “OK.” —“The initials or letters ‘OK,’ employed 
as a signal in telegraphic practice, were derived from the politi- 


2 l8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


cal campaign of 1840, when the words ‘Oil Korrect’—represent¬ 
ed by ‘OK’—were in universal use in speeches and in the press. 

“As the response to the reception of a message, Morse em¬ 
ployed the letters ‘i’ ‘i/ but the everyday slang, ‘OK/ used on all 
occasions, was readily employed by the telegrapher. Besides, 
the letters ‘OK’ are more distinct, telegraphically, than ‘i* ‘i’ for 
signals. Though in use from the commencement of the tele¬ 
graph as a signal, they were officially adopted by the Telegraphic 
Convention at Washington in 1853.”— Shaffner. 

Transmission to repeating or principal offices. —In order that 
the operator at such offices may copy upon the proper blank 
provided for repeated or city business, messages sent must be 
prefixed by “Thru” or “City.” 

Prefixed words , to give warning ofi the kind ofi message to be 
sent to an office .— 

Govt.—Government message. 

Red—Night message. 

Long—Message containing many words. 

Rush—Important message, requiring haste. 

9—Important, has preference over everything. 

Stocks—Stock business important. 

Special—Press message. 

Cypher—Cypher message. 

Code—Code message. 

Ofs.—Correction of errors, or pertaining to the business of 
the company. 

“ Relaying ” a jnessage. —This means to receive it from one 
point and transmit it to another. The term “relay” covers the 
whole service. 

In reporting the number of “relayed messages” a relayed 
message should be counted as one and not as two messages. 

Example ofi ordinary office messages .—If the address of a 
message from New York to John Wilson, Chicago, should be 


TELEGRAPHY. 


219 


received in such shape that the party could not be found, Chi¬ 
cago would send the following: office message. 

To New York Office: 

Give better address, Wilson, signed Harding, of tenth. 

Chicago Office. 

To this message New York might reply: 

To Chicago Office : 0 

Cannot give better address, Wilson, signed Harding, of 
tenth. New York Office. 

If New York had given a wrong address in first instance, he 
might reply: 

To Chicago Office: 

Find Wilson at thirty-two State, instead of twenty-two, 
message of tenth, signed Harding. New York Office. 

Numbering messages .—When companies number messages, 
they are numbered from the sending office to the receiving office, 
on the same circuit only. For example, if Buffalo, in sending 
Chicago messages, has to send to Cleveland for repetition, the 
numbers will be with Cleveland. Each day’s business must be 
numbered separately, commencing with No. 1. This rule ap¬ 
plies also to Sunday business. Blank record sheets are provided 
to keep a record of message numbers, upon which both sent 
and received numbers are checked off. 

Duplicatio?i of messages. —This is occasioned largely by want 
of care in checking received numbers, and also by delaying or 
neglecting the endorsements required on messages when sent. 
This should be avoided with all possible care. The evidence of 
a message having been sent should be placed thereon the 
instant transmission is complete. 

Proper route a?id mode of counting words. —In order to pre¬ 
vent delay in the transmission of messages, arising from differ¬ 
ences of opinion as to their proper route, or mode of counting, 
the sending office decides both as to route and as to what con¬ 
stitute single words in a message, and no office shall refuse to 


220 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


receive and forward or deliver any message from any other office; 
but this rule must not be interpreted to permit errors to pass 
without correction. 

Repeated messages. —To guard against mistakes or delays, the 
sender of a message may order it repeated ; that is, telegraphed 
back to the originating office for comparison. For this, one-half 
the regular rate is charged in*addition. The words “repetition,” 
“ paid,” must be inserted immediately after the signature and 
charged for. 

Insured messages. —Correctness in the transmission of mess¬ 
ages can be insured by contract in writing, stating agreed 
amount of risk, and payment of premium thereon at the follow¬ 
ing rates, in addition to the usual charge for repeated messages, 
viz.: one per cent, for any distance not exceeding 1,000 miles, 
and two per cent, for any greater distance. 

Care in transtnission and receiving. —Extraordinary care must 
be exercised in sending and receiving any repeated and insured 
message. The receiving operator must copy the message care¬ 
fully, and repeat it back over the same circuit before doing any 
other business. He should also personally transmit and have 
repeated to him the message over the next circuit, if any, or see 
that it is done. A memorandum of the time and circumstances 
attending the receiving, transmitting, and repeating back, should 
be written upon the original message, and the return copy must 
be compared and affixed to the original, a copy being always 
taken when repetition is made. 

Whenever an insured or repeated message in course of trans¬ 
mission is stopped by an interruption of the line, the office from 
which it originated must be promptly notified. 

Errors in sending .—When the sender discovers that he has 
made a letter wrong, he stops, makes several dots, and rewrites 
the word, and if a wrong word is sent, and he detects his mis¬ 
take, he also stops, makes dots (msk) and commences again with 
the word sent correctly. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


221 


Punctuation in messages .—A period should close the address, 
and should also be used at the end of every complete sentence, 
except the one immediately preceding the signature. It is 
never used after initials, and no mark of punctuation should be 
used anywhere, except at the close of the address and in the 
body of the message. 

Retaining the circuit. —In transmission, if an operator finds it 
necessary to wait a short time, and desires to retain the circuit, 
he can do so by opening the key, but should repeat “i” “i” every 
few seconds. If necessary to wait longer than one minute, he 
should close the key. If another operator then takes the cir¬ 
cuit for business, he must wait until the other has finished. 

Recalling a message. —It sometimes occurs that after a mes¬ 
sage has been left for transmission, circumstances arise to make 
its recall desirable. This can only be done by the sender’s per¬ 
sonal application, and in case the message has not actually been 
transmitted. Great care must be taken to prevent fraud in re¬ 
calling messages by parties other than the sender. 

Night or “red” messages. —The word “red” must precede all 
night or red messages in transmitting them. Offices which do 
not keep open all night must endeavor to transmit all “reds” 
on hand to their destination, or to the nearest repeating offices, 
before closing, and repeating and press report offices should for¬ 
ward all red messages during the night to their places of desti¬ 
nation, or as near thereto as practicable. This, however, must 
not be understood to prevent the transmission of red messages 
at any time, before night, when an idle wire or otherwise unoc¬ 
cupied time affords the opportunity. Messages necessarily left 
over for transmission the next morning should precede new 
business, and in transmitting them, full rate messages known as 
“blacks,” should precede the “reds.” 



222 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


CABLE MESSAGES OR CABLEGRAMS. 

Cable ?nessages .—All messages offered for transmission by 
cable should be written on cable blanks, subject to the conditions 
thereon, and to provide against mistakes, should be repeated 
back to the operator sending. 

In cases where offices are not supplied with “cable blanks” 
the message may be written on the ordinary telegraph blank, 
but in this case managers are required to call the attention of 
the customer, especially to the clause in the printed heading 
making the company the agent of the sender without liability, 
to forward any message over the lines of any other company 
when necessary to reach its destination, and must require the 
customer’s assent thereto. 

j Basis for coimting words .—The maximum length of a charge¬ 
able word is fixed at ien letters. This applies also to the words 
in the address, destination, and signature. Should a word con¬ 
tain more than ten letters, every ten or fraction of ten letters is 
counted as a word. Words joined by a hyphen or separated by 
an apostrophe, are counted as so many separate words. The 
name and address of the receiver must consist of at least two 
words, and be paid for by the sender, and no message will be 
accepted which does not contain one text or body word. 

Registered Addresses. —There are, says the New York Sun, 
one hundred and sixty thousand registered addresses kept by 
the Anglo-American, Direct United States, American Tele¬ 
graph, and French Cable companies. These addresses com¬ 
prise the names of the principal business firms sending and re¬ 
ceiving cable dispatches in this country. To each of these reg¬ 
istered addresses is appended one word, which represents it in 
all cable messages. This one word is always telegraphed in¬ 
stead of the address. The object of this registration is to 
save the expense of telegraphing, and also secure the utmost 
certainty of prompt delivery. 

Charges. —Cable messages are charged according to a tariff 


TELEGRAPHY. 


223 


per word (the present charges being fifty cents per word). No 
charge is made for the transmission of the name of the place 
from, nor for the indication of any particular route, such as “via 
Falmouth,” etc., etc. The reply to a cable message can be pre¬ 
paid, the sender determining its length, which must not exceed 
thirty words ; the indication “reply prepaid,” or “ Rp,” indicat¬ 
ing the prepayment of a reply of ten words, must be inserted 
after the receiver’s address, and paid for. When a reply of more 
or less than ten words is prepaid, the number of words must be 
specified and charged for. Should the reply contain more words 
than the number specified, the sender of the reply, on present¬ 
ing it for transmission, must pay for the excess. If the original 
message cannot be delivered, or if the receiver formally refuses 
to send a reply, the terminal station will inform the sender of it 
by a telegram which takes the place of a reply. By inserting 
the words “ acknowledgment paid,” or “Cr,” immediately after 
the address, before the text or body, and paying for the same, 
“Cr” counting as one word, the sender of a message will be 
notified by telegraph of the time of delivery. 

Code or cipher “cable messages .”—“Much money is saved in 
telegraphing, not only by cable, but by land lines, in the use of 
codes. All the leading branches of business have these codes, 
by means of which long messages may be sent by the use of few 
words. There is no extra charge for sending code messages by 
cable, as the words are always those that may be found in the 
dictionary. But there are many cipher dispatches sent com¬ 
posed of letters or figures. These are charged extra by count¬ 
ing three letters or figures to each word,” or fraction of three as 
one word. Every separate figure, letter, initial, underline, and 
every group of two figures or letters, must be counted and 
charged for as one word. The European continental authorities, 
however, reserve to themselves the right to refuse messages con¬ 
taining secret or cipher letters. 

Cable business , and time of transmission .—“New York city 


224 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


sends and receives about two thirds of all the cable business of 
the United States. Philadelphia comes next, then Chicago; while 
some of the smaller Southern cities, with their messages relating 
to cotton sales, outrank more northern cities like Boston, Balti¬ 
more, St. Louis, or Cincinnati.” The average time occupied in 
the transmission of cablegrams, depends upon the traffic on the 
line when the message is handed in. Messages to London for¬ 
warded between io a. m. and 3 p. m., would reach destination 
sooner than one handed in at 7 p. m., as then the greater part 
of the European traffic is being transmitted.” 


SECTION XLII. 

RECEIVING AND DELIVERY OF MESSAGES. 

The reception of a message. —The reception must be as in the 
transmission, adding thereto the initial of both the sending and 
receiving operators, endorsing the time of receipt, and ac¬ 
knowledgment by giving the signal “OK,” and the initial of the 
operator and office signal. Operators are particularly cautioned 
against acknowledging messages when in the least doubt of their * 
correctness. 

When the receiver finds he is not getting a message correctly , 
he breaks and repeats the last word received. If he wishes it 
repeated entirely, he says “ R. R.” (repeat). 

Comparing checks .—After receiving a message, and before the 
“OK” is given, the operator should be careful to see that he has 
the right number of words, as called for by the check. He 
holds the circuit while doing this, by keeping his key open, but 
should not delay the business of the line by keeping it open 
longer than necessary. If they do not agree, he should com¬ 
pare with sender till error is found. This is usually done by 
commencing at period, and repeating the first letter in each word 
till the missing portion is discovered. 



TELEGRAPHY. 


225 


No message should pass through the hands of the receiving 
operator until he has counted the words and compared them with 
the check, and otherwise satisfied himself that it is correct, ex¬ 
cept in case a message is erroneously received from some distant 
point, where its correction would cause a serious delay. Under 
such circumstances, the manager causes the message to be de¬ 
livered to the party addressed, with a notation thereon, stating 
that the message is thus delivered, subject to correction after¬ 
wards. When a message is thus delivered, the utmost dispatch 
must be used in securing correction. 

Not copied .—The “Fr,” “To” and “Sig.” preceding the 
date, address, and signature in a message, are never copied by 
the receiver. 

Messages improperly sent. —If any message is improperly sent, 
or the mode of counting is erroneous, the manager of the receiv¬ 
ing office should immediately notify his superintendent; but this 
notification should not interfere with the prompt delivery of the 
message. 

Abbreviating words. —In transmitting or receiving messages, 
operators are strictly forbidden to abbreviate words written in 
full by the sender, or drop any part of an address. 

Repetition of a message on account of supposed error .—Should 
the receiver of any ordinary message require it to be repeated 
on account of supposed error, the application for repetition 
must be addressed to the sending station. Such application and 
repetition must be treated as two distinct messages, and be pre¬ 
paid. Should the supposed error be found to have been the 
fault of the telegraph service, the charges for the application 
and repetition will be refunded, and. the person found to be at 
fault will be required to repay the amount so refunded. 

The use of capital letters. —In receiving messages the proper 
use of capitals “in the copy” should be strictly observed. 

Whenever a message is to be dropped in the post-office, or sent by 


226 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


train to its place of destination. —As the law requires in both cases 
a postage stamp to be affixed, the receiver will collect for postage 
and add it to the check. Such messages must contain instruc¬ 
tions from the sender as to the places from which they are to be 
posted, and the instructions must be inserted immediately after 
the address and charged for as part of the message. The office 
receiving the same for delivery will affix the required postage 
stamp, deposit in the post-office, or deliver to train as may be 
directed, and check the amount of postage against the transmit 
ting office as “for other lines.” 

Message delivered to another address. —Whenever the sender of 
a message which has failed of delivery, through insufficient or 
incorrect address, desires to have a copy delivered to another 
address; another message must be written, transmitted, and paid 
for, in all respects as a new message. 

Messengers .—Messages are delivered by messengers, who 
should, in all cases, be able to read and write, and be appointed 
upon recommendation, from respectable sources, as to good 
character and clean and correct personal habits. 

Messengers are required to be promptly on hand during all 
the hours of service, appointed for them, when not actually en¬ 
gaged in delivering messages, and their home address must be 
known to the manager in case of any special service which may 
be required of them. 

Compensation. —Compensation of messengers is usually fixed 
at a certain rate per message, but where this cannot be prop¬ 
erly done, they receive a fixed salary per week or month, and 
in addition, paid a fixed price per message for answers, the 
amount of which is designated by the district superintendent. 

Opening messages. —No messenger is allowed to open, for 
any purpose, any message handed to him for delivery, or to 
allow any person to whom the same is not deliverable, to open 
the same, or to allow any one to know to whom he is conveying 


TELEGRAPHY. 


227 

any message, or to answer any question respecting the same 
conveying any information whatever. 

Delivery on the proper blank , etc. —Messages for delivery 
should in all cases be written on the blank form of the com¬ 
pany, provided for the purpose, in ink, on which the name of 
the office delivering the same, the date, the time of reception 
and the initials of the sending and receiving operators must ap¬ 
pear. Every message delivered must also bear the check show¬ 
ing the number of words composing the message, whether paid,, 
or collect, and the amount of tolls, if any, due thereon, and 
enclosed in the envelope of the company and sealed. If any 
tolls are to be collected, the amount must be written in words 
upon the envelope. 

Copy retained. —A copy of all delivered messages must be 
retained in the office. 

Delivery. —Messages are delivered without charge within the 
established free delivery limits of the terminal office—for de¬ 
livery at a greater distance, a special charge is made to cover the 
cost of such delivery, and after entry in the messenger’s book,, 
must be delivered promptly to the person or firm addressed, at 
the place of delivery named thereon. If the person or persons 
addressed are absent, the message may be delivered to any agent, 
clerk, or member of the family who may be at the place of de¬ 
livery to which the message is directed, who may be able to- 
give receipt therefor. A receipt acknowledging delivery, show¬ 
ing the actual time received, and the name of the person giving 
receipt must, in all cases, be entered on the receipt blank of the 
messenger. 

Delivery register book. —Principal offices keep a delivery reg¬ 
ister book, containing a record of every message received for 
delivery ; the time received and sent out; the number, the per¬ 
son addressed, the name of the messenger, and the fact whether 
an answer is required or not. At smaller offices notations of 


228 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


these facts are made upon the copy of the message retained in 
the office. 

Messages marked “collect ”—Every office which receives a 
message for transmission is required by the rules to see that it is 
paid for or payment properly guaranteed ; therefore it becomes 
the duty of a manager, in case there is any doubt about being 
able to make the collection, to require the deposit of a sum 
sufficient to guarantee the company or himself against loss. If 
the party to whom the message is addressed refuses to pay for 
it, the niessage should be delivered whether it is paid for or not, 
and the office from which it was originally sent must be 
promptly notified by telegraphy stating the reason therefor, and a 
copy of the message made and sent by mail to the manager of 
the office, with the reason for being uncollectible endorsed 
thereon. The office returning a message will in no case re¬ 
quest that it be not checked; but the message must be en¬ 
tered upon the books, both at starting point and destination, 
precisely the same as if collection had been made—credit for 
the amount at the receiving office being taken in account cur¬ 
rent in monthly report, with which the message, or a copy, 
with reason for being uncollectible, should be returned as a 
voucher. A copy of the office message notifying the sending office 
of failure to collect , must also be sent with the monthly report. 
The office receiving the notice must, if possible, collect the 
amount from the sender of the message; in which case the 
amount collected should be entered in account current, as re¬ 
ceived from “guaranteed messages,” and the copy of the mes¬ 
sage enclosed therewith. In case collection camiot be made of 
the sender, the message, endorsed with the reason, should also be 
enclosed with the monthly report but no account otherwise will 
be made of it. Uncollectible press reports should be treated 
in the same manner, except that a copy of the report need 
not be forwarded to the manager of the office at which it origi¬ 
nated. When three or more messages are returned from any 


TELEGRAPHY. 


229 


office as uncollectible, and three or more messages are ac¬ 
counted for as “guaranteed,” separate lists of each must be made, 
showing the amounts for “this” and “other lines,” and the mes¬ 
sages as sub-vouchers attached thereto. 

Cases ivhere delivery cannot be ?nade. —Messages are not al¬ 
lowed to be delivered to janitors or porters of buildings, unless 
specially requested, or to be slipped under doors, or left where 
persons are not present to receive or receipt therefor. 

In case a message is received after the place of business of 
the person to whom it is addressed is closed, and delivery can¬ 
not, therefore, be made, the messenger must leave a notice, 
placed in an envelope, and properly addressed, stating that a 
message has been received bearing the address written thereon, 
which awaits delivery at the office. This notice, blanks for 
which are provided by the company, and with which messengers 
should at all times be supplied, may be dropped into any letter 
box which may be provided for such purposes, or slipped under 
the door. The undelivered message must be promptly returned 
to the manager of the office, with reason for returning the same 
written thereon, and be sent out for delivery at the earliest mo¬ 
ment practicable. 

Delivery of important messages. —In the case of a message 
which cannot be delivered because the place of business to 
which it is directed is closed, the contents of which, neverthe¬ 
less, indicate the importance of a speedy delivery, the message 
must be delivered at the party’s residence, if known, or if it can 
be ascertained, or delivered elsewhere; but in no case, except at 
the place of original address, to any other than the person ad¬ 
dressed, whose receipt therefor must be obtained. If delivery 
is not thus made, the message should be delivered to its original 
address at the earliest hour practicable. 

Delivery of the same message to different persons— When two 
or more copies ©f the same message are delivered to different 
persons, each one must be paid for. 


230 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Office message for better address. —In case an operator cannot 
find the person a message is directed to, they should send an 
office message back to the office where the message started from, 
giving the reason of non-delivery of message and asking for 
better address. 

Delivery blanks. —The printed blanks used for delivery of 
messages are not allowed under any circumstances to be given 
out only for the purpose for which they are designed. 

Delays i?i reply to messages. —In almost all cases delays in re¬ 
ply to messages, so frequent and annoying, and often supposed 
to be the fault of the telegraph, is almost invariably caused by 
the recipient of a message neglecting to answer it promptly. 

Manners toward the public. —Learn to treat people as if you 
appreciated, and was willing to acknowledge their custom under 
all circiwistances; be courteous and obliging: in short, act as any 
good business man would toward his customers. 


SECTION XLIII. 

TELEGRAPHIC BOOK-KEEPING AND MONTHLY REPORTS. 

Accounts. —The method of keeping accounts is as simple as 
that of any ordinary business house. Each morning all mes¬ 
sages of the previous day are carefully sorted, and those for 
each office registered by themselves in alphabetical order in a 
day-book or journal arranged for the purpose, ruled with columns 
to show how much is to be credited to them, and for other lines, 
or charged to other offices, and each column and the amount 
for each office footed by itself. Sunday business is entered with 
that of Saturday, except when Sunday commences the month, in 
which case it is entered with that of Monday. 

Columns of entry. —All messages sent paid , or received collect , 
must be entered in the column of “receipts,” and all messages 



TELEGRAPHY. 


2$I 

payable at other offices entered in column of “ checks .” The 
column “other lines” in checks, is for amounts paid other lines 
for special delivery, and postage on delivered messages. The 
daily totals of each office may be entered in the order of conse¬ 
cutive dates on the “record sheets” or journal, in columns ar¬ 
ranged for the purpose, keeping the business of each office by 
itself for the whole month. The daily totals can then be car¬ 
ried forward until the last day of the month, when the monthly 
totals can be transferred to check report. 

Check ledger .—From the journal the amounts are posted in a 
“check ledger” to the debit or credit of the different offices, 
and finally from this posted in the general ledger, from which 
the balance sheets are made out, and monthly reports, accom¬ 
panied by vouchers for all authorized expenditures, sent to the 
superintendent to be forwarded to New York, where they are 
expected to correspond with reports from other main offices. 

Copy retained. —A copy of the report as rendered must be 
retained in the office. 

The blanks ?ieeded for the composition of the ordinary regular 
monthly report .— 

Monthly report, or account current. 

Check report. 

Free message report. 

Half-rate message report. 

Guaranteed message report. 

Uncollected message report. 

Cable report. 

Blank vouchers. 

On all these blanks full instructions are given, and their ob¬ 
servance is rigorously required. 

Promptness in forwarding reports and remittances is required 
of all managers, and no person is retained in charge of an office 
who is remiss in this respect. 


232 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


PART FIFTH. 


RAILiMY CGLGGRSPRY. 



The first railroad of which we have any mention, was con¬ 
structed by Mr. Beaumont at the collieries near Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, England, in 1672. Wooden rails were used, and the cars 
were drawn by horses. Iron rails were first used in Whitehaven, 
England, in 1738. 

The controversy in regard to the first steam railroad train 
operated in this country is as yet unsettled, but the preponder¬ 
ance of the evidence would seem to show that it was the train 
run over the Albany & Schenectady road in 1831. The charter 
for this road was granted in 1826 to the Mohawk & Hudson 
River railroad company, and work upon it was begun in 1830. 










TELEGRAPHY. 


2 33 


It was completed in 1831, and in September of that year the first 
passenger train, which is also claimed to be the first steam pass¬ 
enger train ever run in this country, was sent over the rails from 
Albany to Schenectady and back. The year 1830 is generally 
accepted as the time from which to date the history of railroad 
enterprises. It took at least five years after the first road was 
built to get a notable increase of mileage, but to-day there are 
over 120,000 miles of railroad in the United States, and over 
20.000 miles throughout the world. Among the large railway 
.ystems of this country are the following: Pennsylvania, con¬ 
trolling about 6,500 miles of road; Wabash, 3,425 miles; 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, 4,500; Chicago & Northwestern, 
3,500; Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, 4,068; Union Pacific; 
3,873; Missouri Pacific, Iron Mountain, and other roads of the 
“Southern System,” 5,775 miles; Louisville & Nashville, 2,500; 
Grand Trunk of Canada, 3,300; Central Pacific, 3,100; the 
Vanderbilt system of roads; the Seney system; the Baltimore & 
Ohio, and the Erie. If we could judge anything of the pros¬ 
pects of electric railways, by comparison of their history with 
that of the now well-established steam railroads, their success 
would be very well assured. It is only about two years since 
Edison’s experimental electric railway was built at Menlo Park, 
about the same time that Siemens was experimenting with a 
similar line in Berlin, and the first electric railway commercially 
used was built by Siemens, near the same city, only about one 
year ago, and yet there are now about one hundred miles of 
such roads in working order, authorized or in course of construc¬ 
tion. There are short roads in use in Germany, Holland and 
Ireland, and roads are projected or in course of construction in 
Austria, England, Italy, the United States and Wales. 



234 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XLIV. 

MANAGEMENT OF RAILWAY OFFICES, TRAIN DISPATCHERS’ AND 

OPERATORS’ DUTIES-CIRCUIT REGULATIONS-COMMERCIAL 

BUSINESS—CAR REPORTS OR STATEMENTS—TIME BY TELE¬ 
GRAPH. 

Since the perfection of the telegraph and its application to 
the systems of daily life and business, railway trains are almost 
universally run by it, although its use is supplemented by time 
tables and usually the most elaborate system of rules and regu¬ 
lations that can be devised, the peculiarities and experiences of 
each road causing some little variations to suit circumstances 
and surroundings, while generally the methods and practices do 
not differ widely. 

“The increase of traffic, with the vast number of trains to be 
run over the different lines, demonstrated at an early day the 
difficulty in arranging rules and time schedules equal to all 
emergencies, for governing the running of these trains—rules 
that could be practically enforced and that would produce 
prompt and safe movement of trains in both directions over a 
single track at all times, and repeated failures to produce such 
results have undoubtedly, in many instances, resulted in the con¬ 
struction of a second track when it was not necessary and could 
not be afforded.” 

The information regarding railway telegraphy, has been de¬ 
rived from official sources in connection with the most promi¬ 
nent railways in this country, and has been carefully compiled 
and prepared, with the aim of making it as complete and com¬ 
prehensive as the greatest brevity consistent with the object 
aimed at will permit; therefore, it is believed that the informa¬ 
tion is more complete than anything hitherto published in a 
work of this kind. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


235 


Railway telegraphy , its advantages. —On a single track it pos¬ 
sesses the advantage over the old style of working by schedule 
only, of economy, simplicity, the more speedy movement of 
trains, preventing blockades, and the unnecessary detention of 
superior trains waiting for inferior ones. 

Train dispatching. —The system known as the American sys¬ 
tem of train dispatching, as practiced on nearly every road in 
the United States and Canada, has for its aim the moving of 
opposing trains along a single track line, and to fix their meet¬ 
ing points. On more than one track the business of train dis¬ 
patching is usually little more than to keep slow trains out of 
the way of faster ones, except in cases of emergencies. 

Although the principles are common, yet each road has a 
system of its own, differing from the others in detail, in the 
schedule rights given to trains, in the manner of giving and 
receiving the train orders, and in the manner of checks to avoid 
the occurrence of errors. 

Origin of the systetn. —The present system of train dispatch¬ 
ing originated in a system first adopted by the Erie Railway, 
introduced in 1850 by Mr. Charles Minott, general superintend¬ 
ent, who first run a train over that road by telegraph, although 
it is claimed that other railway men previous to that date had 
availed themselves of the use of the telegraph in the movement 
of trains. 

“During the past ten years the care and attention given the 
subject by prominent and experienced men, has greatly improved 
and strengthened the older systems; also experience has dem¬ 
onstrated the weak points, and where to place the strongest 
guards against danger.” 

But there is as yet among practical railroad men, a wide diver¬ 
sity of opinion in the form and interpretation of train rules and 
orders, resulting in different constructions being placed upon 
similarly worded rules. Successful train dispatching, however, 


236 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


means simple, well worded orders, made so explicit and plain 
as to be beyond the possibility of misconstruction. 

Management .—All employes in the telegraph department of 
railways are under the management and control of the telegraph 
superintendent, subject to the general instructions of division 
superintendents ; and operators are under the immediate charge 
of the chief train dispatchers of the division on which they may 
be employed. 

The train dispatcher .—The position of train dispatcher is sec¬ 
ond in importance to no position on the road. He is frequently 
an expert operator, but it is not absolutely necessary that he 
should be a telegrapher, although to have an intelligent under¬ 
standing of what is going on, he should be able to read all that 
passes on the wire. He should be a man of more than average 
ability, of good judgment, clear head, and strictly temperate. 
“ Quick dispatch ” is what shippers of perishable and export 
freight, in these days, demand of railroads, and without an effi¬ 
cient, clear-headed train dispatcher, this important freight cannot 
show a good record, as trains are liable to set on sidings, wait¬ 
ing for an expected train which may be delayed several hours, 
causing a stoppage of all the trains on the road. Train dis¬ 
patchers must have a thorough knowledge of the road, length of 
trains, siding and grades, and must know how far each conduc¬ 
tor, engineer, and operator may be depended upon, and in fact 
the minute parts of everything connected with his department; 
and last but not least, his time tables. He is authority so far as 
it goes, on all subjects pertaining to the time table and rights of 
trains, regardless of opinions. 

Authority .—Division superintendents, and train dispatchers 
under their directions, are the only persons authorized to give 
special orders, and the authority is limited to their respective 
districts or divisions; thus, in issuing special orders, the train 
dispatcher represents the superintendent. He has absolute 


TELEGRAPHY. 237 

control over all trains, and his orders must be obeyed, except 
when palpably they would cause danger. 

Not more than one person on a district or division is permitted 
at the same time to give special orders for the movement of 
trains. 

Division superintendent. —On the majority of roads the train 
dispatcher is required to give special orders in the name of the 
division superintendent, adding thereto the initials of his own 
name. 

Dispatchers' duties. —In a central office on the line of a rail¬ 
way, the train dispatcher, with the necessary assistants in corres¬ 
ponding positions to make the service complete, receives tele¬ 
graphic reports and records the movements of all trains in his 
division in and out of stations. It is his duty to keep the local¬ 
ity of every train running on the division constantly in his mind. 
The trains are run by the schedule or train rules, or when any 
train is “off time,” and has lost all rights, or what is called 
“wild,” i. e., having no rights at all, then the dispatcher takes 
such trains in hand and orders them to move as he sees fit to 
hasten their progress, consistent with safety. He is also in¬ 
trusted with the ordinary working of the lines, testing and chang¬ 
ing circuits, the direction of operators and repairers in the 
discharge of their respective duties, and as a rule must report 
each morning to the superintendent of telegraph the state of 
the weather along the line, the condition of the circuits upon his 
respective division, and the nature of any interruptions that 
have existed or do exist, and what measures have been taken for 
repairs. 

Construction of orders. —Train dispatchers must themselves 
write all messages involving the movement of trains, and must 
not permit another person to do it for them, and before sending 
any special orders they are required to write them out in full in 
their train order book. 


238 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


On some roads the dispatcher sends the order from memory, and copies it in 
his order book when the receiving operator repeats it, who is required to repeat 
the order precisely as received. 

Resporisibility .—Where the roads have only single tracks, the 
labors and responsibility of a train dispatcher are very great. 
Very few realize the weight of the responsibility resting on the 
mind of the train dispatcher, not only must he keep a watch 
over one train which is speeding along at a rate of 35 or 40 
miles an hour, bearing its precious freight of human lives, but 
he must follow the complicated movements of many other 
trains with their thousands of lives and valuable property, 
which a blunder or an inaccuracy of his would hurl to death and 
ruin. On many roads numerous trains traveling in opposite 
directions are on a division at one time. All these have to meet 
and pass each other somewhere along the division. The dis¬ 
patcher must know just where to hold the train, where to send 
that one from and how far to run it, and know within a second 
just when to expect a train at a station. With his time-table 
before him, containing the names of all stations and numbers of 
all trains, the dispatcher sits close to the operator, surrounded by 
clicking machines, checks off train and station as arrivals are 
rapidly telegraphed, and quickly issues his orders to the operator, 
to be sent to expectant trainmen all along the division. 

For any accident by collision on a road, the dispatcher is held 
responsible, unless it is shown that his orders were disobeyed. 
The butting collision is peculiarly an accident of management. 
A sudden storm, a land slide, many other things which cannot 
well be foreseen, may cause derailments; a break-down, a fog or 
some such cause may explain a rear collision, but a butting colli¬ 
sion in its nature presupposes carelessness or a mistake some¬ 
where, and the blame is generally supposed to rest between the 
train dispatcher, operator, and the two men upon whom de¬ 
volves the movement of the train itself, the conductor and the 
engineer. 


TELEGRAPHY 


2 39 


Cause of accidents .—The improved construction of rolling 
stock has reduced almost to a minimum the number of accidents 
caused by defective running gear; the fruitful misplaced switch 
is giving way to automatic devices that are secure; and the adop¬ 
tion of the combined interlocking switches implies as complete 
guarantee of safety as human ingenuity can probably contrive. 
The use of such improvements in the mechanical science of 
railroading has had the effect of slowly, but surely, transferring 
the responsibility for all accidents, from causes that were often 
not determinable at all, directly and unmistakably to individual 
negligence or criminal inefficiency. '‘Undoubtedly due to one 
of two causes: either the capacity of the employe has been 
over-taxed to such an extent by long hours of work, that his 
faculties can no longer be relied upon; or his intelligence and 
general worth as an employe are of so low a grade that he 
maliciously neglects or fails to comprehend his duties.” Speak¬ 
ing on this subject, the New York Herald says that the trouble 
with our great railroad systems is that but one consideration is 
thought of—namely, the necessity of large dividends, and the 
tendency to manage the roads with criminal economy, and that 
in many instances the true underlying cause of disasters may be 
attributed to this cause. 

It is undoubtedly true that the standard of the service may be 
much improved, to the benefit of both the public and the com¬ 
panies, by the payment of better salaries, and thus always secur¬ 
ing and retaining the services of good men. The careless act 
of a single worthless employe may in a moment destroy property 
of a value sufficiently large to handsomely increase the salary of 
every employe in the service of the company for a considerable 
length of time. 

Caution regarding accidents— Dispatchers are ever to bear in 
mind the vital necessity of exercising the greatest possible cau¬ 
tion at all times in giving orders to run trains in any manner by 
telegraph, and although required to be prompt and diligent to 


240 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


give trains such dispatch as is consistent with safety, they are to 
remember at all times that safety is more important than dispatch, 
and in cases of doubt to always take the safe side. Safety is the 
first consideration, and all other matters must be made secondary. 

Le?igth of divisions and number of hours 1 labor. —The length of 
division and the hours allotted to each train dispatcher vary 
considerably; no general rule can be made applicable, as such 
matters must be governed entirely by the quantity of work. 
While on some roads a dispatcher can work twelve hours on a 
stretch, on others it is found the labor is so severe that six hours’ 
continuous work is the limit. On most of railways the weight 
of his responsibility is heavy, the hours of labor long and tire¬ 
some, and the rate of compensation light considering the re¬ 
sponsibilities. 

Belief of dispatchers. —When the control of a division is trans¬ 
ferred by one dispatcher to another, the greatest care must be 
used by both dispatchers to have the position of all trains un¬ 
derstood as well as all special orders, which have been issued, 
which are yet to be carried out. The train dispatcher and the 
telegraph operator in his office must not be relieved at the same 
hours. 

The “line” operator. —It is absolutely important that he be 
impressed with the sense of responsibility resting upon him. 
“His apprenticeship and training should be such as to assure 
this as far as possible, and before appointment every operator 
should be subjected to a careful examination, above all upon his 
knowledge of the company’s rules and methods in regard to the 
handling of train orders and signals; then as to his skill in 
sending and receiving messages, and finally as to his ability to 
perform such manipulations of the wires as are occasionally re¬ 
quired of way offices when interruptions occur on the line. A 
line operator may do much to keep business moving by advis¬ 
ing the dispatcher of arrivals, delays, and other things occurring 
near him, which have a bearing on train movements, but which 


TELEGRAPHY. 


241 


the letter of his instructions may not require him to report. 
One who does this intelligently prepares and recommends him¬ 
self for promotion.” 

Operator’s duties. —They are required to devote themselves 
exclusively to the service of the company during business hours; 
those having other duties to perform in the transportation or 
freight department are not permitted to allow such duties to 
prevent the proper attention to the telegraph, which service 
must be regarded as the first in importance. 

Office manager .—At offices where there is but one day and 
one night operator, the day operator acts as manager, and is 
held responsible for the commercial and other business done at 
his office. 

Office hours .—At stations where there is no night operator, the 
hours are from 7 a. m. until relieved by the train dispatcher. Office 
hours, where both day and night operators are employed: day 
operator from 7 a. m. to 7 p. m.; night operator from 7 p. m. to 
7 a. m. Both operators are required to come on duty promptly 
at the regular hour, and remain on duty until relieved or excused 
by the train dispatcher. Office hours are varied by train dis¬ 
patchers as cases of emergency may require; where there are 
more than one day or night operator employed, there must be 
one person on duty at all hours, especially before the arrival of 
an expected train. 

Meals. —Ordinarily all operators are allowed one hour for each 
meal, but where two or more day or night operators are 
employed, they must not all be absent at their meals at the same 
time. 

Office hours , Sundays .—On Sunday, the hours are arranged 
upon each division of a road as the service may require. 

Duty required of operators in case of accident. —In case of 
accident no account or message respecting it other than regular 
tariff business is permitted to be sent, unless to an officer of the 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


242 

railway company, signed by an agent, conductor, or other 
authorized person, nor is it allowed to be made the subject of 
conversation or remark ; particulars for the public or for publi¬ 
cation is furnished by officers of the company only. 

Extra duty required of night operators. —In addition to their 
regular duties night operators are on many lines required to re¬ 
port “weather signals,” or on some lines the signal “6” to the 
train dispatcher’s office each hour from 9 p. m. until relieved by 
the day operator, and on some lines other extra duties are re¬ 
quired, such as selling tickets for night passenger trains, check¬ 
ing baggage, etc. 

No admittance in offices. —As a rule no person is allowed in 
the telegraph offices of a railway, whose duty does not require 
him to be there. The safety of trains and privacy of dis¬ 
patches intrusted to the telegraph requires that this rule shall be 
obeyed. 

Subject to supervisio?i of station agents. —Operators at stations 
are subject to the supervision of the station agent, who is re¬ 
quired to see that they properly attend to their duties. 

Operator required to be in office. —When trains are due or at 
their station, the operator is required to be in his office, and not 
on the platform, unless the service requires his presence there. 

Train register. —Operators are required to keep a register of 
all trains passing their office, and the reports from such other 
offices as the train dispatcher may require, and must keep the 
time of trains properly indicated upon the bulletin boards at the 
offices where they are used. 

Change of residence. —Operators are required to change their 
places of residence at the discretion of the superintendent of 
telegraph; and at stations where a day operator only is employed, 
he must inform the night watchman or nearest track foreman, 
where he may be found during the night, should he be required. 

Strictly prohibited. —The use of instruments or batteries in 


TELEGRAPHY. 


243 

offices either in addition to or in place of those furnished for 
their regular equipment; and the stringing of private wires in 
or about the station, or from a station to another point in the 
neighborhood is strictly prohibited on most roads; and operators 
are not permitted to make any changes of wires, nor to move 
instruments without orders, as all such changes and removals 
should be made by the division repairer. 

Students. —They are not allowed to practice in any office on 
a railway without permission from the superintendent of tele¬ 
graph. Dispatchers and operators as a general thing on most 
roads are kept very busy, and have no time for giving instruc¬ 
tions. 

Circuit regulations. —On some railway lines such circuit 
regulations are adopted as gives equal right to all, thus avoiding 
contention of circuit, and saving much valuable time usually 
consumed in calling. 

Circuit signals. —On all lines certain circuit controlling signals 
are made use of, usually consisting of numerals, which com¬ 
mands immediate suspension of all subordinate business, and 
vary greatly in their meaning on different lines. 

Testing wire signals. —Usually on all lines the signal word 
“wire” or “line” is used by chief operators to test for trouble 
and settle disputes; operators can also use it to report trouble 
on the wires. The signal has no absolute rights, but a good rea¬ 
son is demanded for any failure to give way to it. Officers of the 
company are requested to respect it, as a moment or two is 
usually sufficient to render wires available, that would otherwise 
be useless for a long time. 

Value of signals. —Signals must be immediately respected 
according to their meaning. When a wire is used for both rail¬ 
way and commercial business, the signals “ stocks” and “wire” 
has preference over ordinary business; however, certain signals 
of the railway company have preference over these, and in case 


244 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


all the wires are useless, except one, then the rules in force upon 
the railway wire govern that wire until the others are repaired. 

Commercial business. —The commercial business on most of 
railway lines is controlled by the Western Union Telegraph Co?n 
pany under an agreement between the railway company and the 
latter, the operators acting as agents for the telegraph company, 
and making monthly reports and remittances to that com¬ 
pany. All messages except such as pertain to the business 
of the railway company, and ordinary communications of its 
officers and agents, are considered as business of the telegraph 
company, and must be done subject to the rules and regulations 
of that company, so far as such rules do not conflict with those 
of the railway company. 

Western Unio?i city office. —At points where a city office is 
maintained by the telegraph company, the railway operator need 
only transact such business for passengers and others who are 
unable to go to the commercial office, and must account for the 
same to the manager of the city office as often as required. 

Commissio?is. —At all railway offices where commercial busi¬ 
ness is done, the manager is usually allowed ten per cent, of the 
gross receipts of the office each month, in consideration that he 
will give the commercial business transacted at or through his 
office prompt and careful attention. 

Railway messages. —Railway business is transacted with much 
less formality than is used in commercial messages. The names 
in addresses and signatures are sometimes abbreviated to the 
initials simply. Dates are often omitted, and no checks are 
sent; also, many words in the body of messages are abbreviated. 
When, however, the business of a railway company passes off 
from its own line, it is treated the same as other free or paid 
business. 

Trai?i reports. —On the majority of railways, operators are 
required to keep a record of all trains which pass their stations, 


TELEGRAPHY. 


245 


as well as reports of trains from other offices. The form for 
train reports varies on different lines. The common form is to 
call the train dispatcher’s office, and make the signal “OS” sev¬ 
eral times, and sign the office call; then give the number of the 
train and its direction, saying on time abbreviated to “ OT,” or, 
if late, stating (in figures) the exact time of its arrival (Ar), and 
departure (D), and always signing the office call at the close. 
The correct time is required to be reported, taken from the office 
clock and not from trainmen. Offices failing to hear train 
reports, must obtain them from the dispatcher’s office. If an 
operator should be unable to know from any cause whether trains 
have passed, he should at once acknowledge the fact, when 
called upon for a report. An excuse might be received for an 
acknowledged neglect, but no excuse is received for sleeping on 
duty, and reporting trains incorrectly on that account. When 
trains are delayed beyond their schedule time, the operator 
should always ascertain the cause, and report the details to the 
division superintendent’s office. 

Car reports or statements .—In order that the most may be 
made of the equipment of a road, rigid system is necessary, 
that the condition and exact whereabouts of that equipment 
may be always apparent at headquarters, and that it may be 
handled with the minimum of confusion and useless or unneces¬ 
sary movement. Hence on all well regulated roads, agents are 
required to make out daily a detailed “car report” to be trans¬ 
mitted by telegraph to the division superintendent’s office, the 
form of which is about the same on all roads, “ and relate en¬ 
tirely to the condition of each station relative to freight car 
equipment. Thus each station indicates, under the head of 
‘long box,’ ‘medium box,’ ‘short box,’ ‘flat,’ ‘stock,’ 
‘coal,’(sideboard, flat or dump), and ‘foreign,’ it has ‘on hand 
loaded for this station,’ ‘on hand empty,’ it has ‘to spare,’ or 
that it wants for service from that station. If there are abso¬ 
lutely no cars under any circumstances at the station, the report 


246 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


is simply ‘no cars.’ Agents at junctions, or at stations passed 
by freight trains for more than one line or branch of the road, 
designate the number of loaded cars for each line or branch. 
The system of telegraphy thus so rapidly and succinctly per¬ 
forming a specific service may be greatly shortened by the use 
of single letters to express whole sentences. Thus ‘A’ may 
mean ‘ long box cars on hand loaded for this station/ a figure 
accompanying indicating the number of that particular kind; or 
*J’ may refer to ‘to cars on hand loaded for this station/ as 
the figure designating before, and so on.” 

Time of sending car reports .—The time varies on different 
roads, but is usually sent in the morning on most of roads (all 
business on the line being for the time suspended as far as 
practicable). The most distant station commences, and as one 
station finishes another begins, and so on in turn until all have 
reported. Small stations, having no telegraph apparatus of 
their own, send their reports or returns to the nearest station 
having such apparatus, using the first passing train for the pur¬ 
pose. 

Method of sending time .—On all roads an accurate system of 
maintaining a standard of time is a necessity, in order to assure 
safety in running trains and avoid confusion. The method of 
sending time differs but little on the different railways, and is 
usually sent at 12 o’clock noon, although some roads prefer the 
morning, and others the latter part of the afternoon, either of 
the above being preferred on account of its not taking up valu¬ 
able time at the more busy hours of the day; for the purpose of 
sending time, all other business is suspended a few moments be 
fore the hour selected. In order to give every operator an op¬ 
portunity to adjust his instrument and prepare to take time, com¬ 
mencing one, and on some roads two minutes before the hour 
. selected, the operator who sends the time 'beats the seconds 
with his key, and at precisely the hour says “i i,” or repeats 


TELEGRAPHY. 


247 


< ‘S,” and gives the hour selected, after which, business proceeds 
as usual. 

The Pennsylvania Company's system of sending time .—This 
company have adapted and carried into successful operation a 
system of telegraphic time signals which is probably the most 
perfect system in use. A telegraph circuit is established be¬ 
tween the clock of the Allegheny observatory, and the general 
offices of the company at Pittsburg. The clock of the obser¬ 
vatory is regulated by astronomical observations, and the pendu¬ 
lum of the clock is so connected with the circuit that the latter 
is broken and closed at each vibration, and thus regular pulsa¬ 
tions of seconds are transmitted over the wire, and sounded 
upon a bell in the telegraph rooms of the general offices, at any 
time during the day or night the bell may be switched in, and 
the standard clock corrected to within an infinitesimal part of a 
second. The arrangement of the mechanism at the observatory 
is such that the seconds are beat consecutively until the fiftieth 
inclusive; there is then a pause (open circuit) of ten seconds, 
after which the first beat indicates the commencement of the 
next minute, the beats being continued as before. The closing 
of the hour is indicated by the circuit remaining open the entire 
last sixtieth minute. The first beat thereafter marks the com¬ 
mencement of the next hour sharp. The pauses are considered 
as preliminary signals for comparison with clocks. 

The hour of sending “ time .”—The time is transmitted overall 
the lines of the company at 4 p. m. of each day. At about 3:55 
p. M. the operator at Pittsburgh signals time (business being sus¬ 
pended on the circuits for ten minutes to give way to time). 
The word time is repeated several times to call attention of the 
different offices on the circuits. At or about 3:57 he connects 
the main lines by automatic repeaters with the observatory cir¬ 
cuit. After the circuit is complete, the second beats are repeated 
on the main circuit as heretofore described. 

By this process exact Standard time is transmitted each day, 


248 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


and clocks at different main offices of the road carefully reg¬ 
ulated by observatory time. Employes are instructed to com¬ 
pare daily. 


SECTION XLV. 

CLASSIFICATION OF TRAINS—TECHNICAL TERMS. 

Trains , how classified .—Trains are classified as regular, extra, 
and wild. The time table, as usually arranged, only indicating 
regular trains. 

Regular trains. —The trains specifically enumerated on the 
time table and divided into two classes viz: passenger and 
freight. 

First class .—Passenger trains are rated as first class trains, 
their importance as to superiority generally graded in the follow¬ 
ing order: express, mail, accommodation and way. 

Second class. —Freights, the importance of their superiority 
rated as follows: stock, through, and local or way. 

Speed and rights of trains. —The speed of each is regulated to 
suit the grades and conditions of the road. First class or trains 
of superior class have the absolute right to the road over those of 
inferior class, and the latter must be kept entirely out of their 
way. 

Trains passing .—Where trains are to pass each other , the train 
having the right to the road occupies the mam tracks excepting 
when there are special orders to the contrary, or it shall be im¬ 
practicable to thus pass. 

Extra trains or engines .—Trains following trains of the first or 
second class under the prescribed signals, in which case they 
possess the same schedule rights as the train which carry the 
signals. On most of roads, however, each several train following 
a regular under signals is referred to as a “section” of the regu- 



TELEGRAPHY. 


249 


lar; while on others, all trains not stated on the time table are 
designated by the term “extra” or “wild.” 

Wild trains .—Trains classed as special, wild, or work trains, 
and run by special order, unless otherwise provided for. It is 
commonly supposed that special trains have the right of way 
over all others, but this is very rarely the case. On great oc¬ 
casions a special time table is prepared for the extra train, 
and then the others give way to it. If, however, at any time 
they shall fall behind in the time of their own special schedule, 
they at once pass into the hands of the train despatcher, the 
same as any other train. 

Trains , how numbered .—Trains are numbered, beginning at 
number 1, 3, 5, or 2, 4, 6, and so on up ; even numbers one 
way, odd numbers the other. 

Twie table or schedule .—The time table is designed for the 
better regulation of trains, giving the time of arrival and de¬ 
parture, and meeting points, of all regular trains, the full faced 
figures indicating the regular passing places; also, stating the 
class of train under each number, usually passenger trains first. 

Rules are also added to the time table directing how the trains 
are to proceed with relation to each other, and partake very gen¬ 
erally of the character of the men introducing them, hence the 
lack of a desirable system and uniformity between the different 
roads in rules governing the movement of trains. 

• The time table also shows the distance between each station 
and the distance from the terminal station to any other station 
on the road, and usually gives the number of feet of siding at 
each station, and also designate at what stations day and night 
telegraph offices are located, the letter D indicating day, and N 
day and night offices. 

“ If it were possible to arrange time tables to show the number 
of trains actually required to be run each day, and to know that 
these trains would go on time, that no delays occur from 


250 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


accident, extra service, the weather, or the hundreds of other 
obstacles to be met, then the telegraph order could be dispensed 
with; but under the circumstances as they exist it forms, and 
always will, an important and constant aid, and is in fact indis¬ 
pensable on all the longer single track lines.” 

Sections of trains. —Trains may consist of one or several sec¬ 
tions, and are run under cover of prescribed signals, carried on 
front of the engine. When two or more trains are running on 
the same time, under cover of signals, the leading train is con¬ 
sidered as the first section, the next as the second section, and 
so on indefinitely. When more than one section, the engine of 
each section except the last is required to carry the prescribed 
signals to indicate that another train is following. 

Freights and lower grades of trains on siding. —They must 
be on siding and clear passenger trains, leaving time not less 
than five minutes, and on some roads ten minutes. 

Right oj road. —Trains going in one direction on a road, al¬ 
ways have the right of way over those of the same class going in 
the opposite direction, the discrimination in the direction, 
being usually in favor of that current of travel that it is most 
important the railway company should favor. 

Direction of trains on double track. —In England the universal 
rule is for trains to take the left hand track, and on some roads 
in this country the same rule is observed, but on most roads all 
trains in either direction, when running, are required to take the 
right hand track, unless stated otherwise in the time table, or 
by special order, in case of accident or obstruction. 

Speed. —The maximum rate of speed on railways in this 
country, with a few exceptions, for passenger trains, is about 40 
miles per hour, or one mile in one and a half minutes; the aver¬ 
age speed is probably about 30 miles an hour. The average 
speed for freight trains is about five minutes to the mile, or from 
12 to 15 miles an hour. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


2 5 * 

Fastest train. Probably the fastest train in this country, and 
one which is little below the speed of the fastest English trains 
for the same distance, is the Philadelphia express on the Penn¬ 
sylvania railroad, which makes the run of 88.4 miles from Jersey 
City to Philadelphia in 1 hour 52 minutes, including three stops, 
or at the rate of 47.8 miles per hour. In England the “ Flying 
Dutchman ” on the Great Western Railway runs from London 
to Swindon, 77^ miles, in 1 hour 27 minutes, or 53.3 miles an 
hour. This train used to be the fastest in the world, but the 
speed is fully equaled by some of the Leeds expresses on the 
Great Northern, which run 70^ miles in 1 hour 17 minutes 
without stoppage, or at the rate of 54.7 miles an hour. On 
both the American and English railroads for short stretches of 
straight track, with a good road bed and favoring grades, a speed 
of 60 miles an hour is not very uncommon. 

Distance between trains .—Passenger trains (while running in 
the same direction) or sections of passenger trains, are required to 
keep at least ten minutes apart; on some roads passenger trains 
are required to keep fifteen or twenty minutes apart to insure safety. 
All other trains of whatever kind, running in the same direction, 
whether as sections of one train or otherwise, are required to 
run not less than five minutes apart, except in closing up at 
stations or passing places; however, trains following others 
must approach stations with proper care, so as to prevent 
the possibility of a collision with the forward trains, or injury to 
persons about the premises. The neglect of these precautions 
are always a source of danger. A very common cause of rear 
collisions seems to be the running of trains so close together 
that, in case of a mishap to the first train, or a sudden stop from 
any cause, there is no time to warn and stop the next one. This 
is especially true of freight trains running in sections, as they are 
run on most roads with heavy traffic. 

“ Know-Nothing ” stops. —Stops made at grade crossings 
of other roads and at draw-bridges. The name originated in 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


252 

Massachusetts, so called because the law requiring full stops to 
be made at such places was passed by the famous “ Know- 
Nothing ” legislature of 1855. 

Main track. —The main track or tracks of a road upon which 
the trains are run. 

Sidetrack. —A track running parallel with the main track, and 
connected with it at each end by a switch. This track varies in 
length and is sometimes called a “ siding,” or “turn-out.” 

Spur track. —A short track connected only at one end with 
the main track running parallel with the latter or otherwise. 

Y. —A track connecting two tracks in the general form of the 
letter Y. 

Guage of track. — The distance between the rails. The 
national guage in this country is 4 feet S }4 inches, but 5 feet is 
still the prevailing guage on many of the Southern roads, and 4 
feet 9 inches the standard guage of the Pennsylvania company, 
although there is virtually no difference between a 4 feet 9 inch 
and a 4 feet 8^4 inch guage, the same cars running over each 
readily. 

In England a depot is called a “railway station," a leeper or pusher is a 
“bank engine," frogs are known as “diamond crossings,” and ties are called 
“sleepers.” An engineer is an “ engine driver,” switching is the “marshaling 
of trains.” A grade crossing is a " level crossing," a track foreman answers to 
the title of “ gager or platelayer, ” rails are called “metals,” baggage is “ lug¬ 
gage,” a car is a “ carriage,” and a flying switch is a “ shunt.” 


SECTION XLVI. 

RAILWAY SIGNALS—ELECTRIC SAFETY SIGNALS. 

At the present time there exists a great diversity of meaning 
in the system of signals on the different roads, although it would 
seem for many reasons that a uniform system of train signals, 
applicable to all roads, is desirable. However, the unnecessary 



TELEGRAPHY. 


253 


and dangerous dissimilarity of railway signals in this country 
has become such a subject for grave consideration, that the 
Association of American Railroad Superintendents, at their re¬ 
cent meeting in New York, adopted and recommended a code 
of signals for use on all roads in the country. And the last 
annual report of the commissioner of railroads urges strongly 
that all railroads should use one uniform set of train signals, 
which shall have the same meaning on all railroads. 


Signal devices .—There are different modes of signalling; some 
roads use hand-flags or lamps of the proper color by day or 
night, displayed in a fixed position, while most of the more 
important railways now employ either electric or automatic me¬ 
chanical signal devices or target apparatus, arranged for display¬ 
ing the proper signals by day and night, manipulated from 
within the telegraph office. However, where such devices are 
used, operators are also required to have a red flag and red hand 
lantern and torpedoes ready for immediate use in case of trouble 
with the regular signals, or during foggy or stormy weather. 
The regular signal lantern should be lighted one hour before 
sunset, and kept burning until one hour after sunrise. 

Colors used .—The colors used are red, white, green, and blue; 
red generally for orders, although some roads use green. 

Danger signals .—A red flag, or red displayed in the regular 
signal device by day, a red light by night, a lantern swung 
across the track, a torpedo exploded thereon, the absence of 
lights at switches and crossings, where usually shown, or any 
object violently waved on the track is a signal of danger, and 
means “stop.” 

White signal .—The display of a white signal or a white flag 
is the signal of safety, and when exhibited it indicates that all 
is right for the train to pass. 



254 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Red lights at switches indicate that the switches are set for 
sidings. 

Green lights at switches indicate that switches are for the main 
tracks. 

Blue signal. —A blue flag by day, and a blue light at night 
displayed on the road, is the signal for caution in passing over 
the track. A blue signal is also used by car inspectors. 

Green and white .—Is a signal used to stop trains at signal 
stations where trains do not stop unless signaled. 

The se?naphore. —This apparatus is probably the best and 
most satisfactory signal contrivance in use, as it is possible to 
give a greater number of different signals with this device than 
with any other yet invented. It is usually placed where there 
are double tracks, or where roads cross each other, and consists 
of a pole, on which is mounted “as a target ” one, two, or more 
arms, disks, or cross arms, as occasion may require, which may 
be painted “ red ” and “ white,” or any desired color. The sig¬ 
nals are indicated by the position of the arms, which may be 
turned either in a perpendicular, horizontal, or any required 
position; at night their position is indicated by the proper colored 
lights. This device is used for train orders and to block the 
different sections of both passenger and freight trains or trains 
following each other. 

The Gravit semaphore .—This apparatus, which has been in 
successful operation on the Lake Shore Railway for some time, 
is considered not only superior to any semaphore yet devised, 
but is as nearly perfect as an arrangement for the same purpose 
can be made. Its main feature is a right-angled fixture adjust¬ 
able in six different and distinct positions, and moved by a lever 
placed within reach of the telegraph operator. When both arms 
of the triangle are up, the signal is that both tracks are blocked 
and all trains must stop. Both arms down, indicates that both 
tracks are clear, and trains may proceed in each direction. The 


TELEGRAPHY. 


2 55 


south track being blocked, an arm is pointed south, the other 
arm lying perpendicularly on the supporting post; north track 
blocked, vice versa. Also, both arms may be made to project in 
one direction or the other at the sides. At night, in addition 
to the adjustment of the arms, lights may be shown in the 
semaphore lantern to approaching trains, a red light signifying 
that the train must stop, a white light that it may proceed, etc. 
The operator, after receiving his telegraphed orders and making 
the proper movement of the arms, must reply that he has done 
so.— Railroader. 

Train order signal, normal position of. —This signal, which is 
pre-eminently a danger signal, is displayed on many roads only 
when a train is to be stopped for orders; and on others the nor¬ 
mal position of the signal indicates danger. However, in all 
systems of danger signals, it is now generally conceded that the 
normal position of the signal at all stations should be at danger , 
and the signal never secured or fastened in any other position 
except at offices where there is no night operator; “thus the 
signal is always in a position to stop trains unless moved to an¬ 
other position to show that there are no orders for them.” 

All trains must stop for danger signal, and must not proceed 
until it is removed, and conductor and engineer receive orders, 
or a clearance showing there are no orders for them. 

Trains “blocked.” —As a rule, on many roads all trains must 
be blocked ten minutes apart, except where freight trains are 
closing up to take siding, or where the schedule allows a less 
time. Any train following a passenger train on the main track, 
must be held by danger signal for ten minutes after the depart¬ 
ure of the passenger train. 

Train signals. —Each train, running after sunset, or when ob¬ 
scured by fog or other cause, must display the headlight in front 
and two red lights in the rear. On passenger trains the rear 
lights are placed side by side, about three feet apart. On freight 


256 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


trains they are placed on the sides or top of the rear car; but 
on some roads two green flags by day and two green lights by 
night must be displayed, one on each side of the rear of the 
train as markers. 

Signals on engines. —Two red flags unfurled by day, and two 
red lights by night, displayed in the places provided for that 
purpose on the front of an engine , indicate that the engine or 
train is to be followed by another having the same schedule rights. 
In case by accident two red flags or two red lights cannot be ob¬ 
tained, one red flag or one red light indicates the same thing. 
One section, following another under signals as above prescribed, 
must always be taken and considered to be a part of and have 
all the rights of the leading train, a?id no more, and the conduc¬ 
tors of all other trains must so regard it—except when trains are 
directed to run by special order ;* in such cases a following train 
will not possess the rights of the leading train, unless specially 
authorized to do so. On some roads “green signals” are used 
for this purpose instead of “red,” and on others the green sig¬ 
nal indicates the train is a wild train. On some roads when 
white signals are displayed it indicates that the train is an 
“extra.” A yellow flag or light carried is a signal to trackmen 
that the telegraph line is out of order and must be examined 
by them and repaired. 

The “ torpedo ” danger signal .—An exploding cap or torpedo, 
clamped to the top of the rail, is an extra danger signal; to be 
used in addition to the regular signals at night, in foggy weather 
and in cases of accident or emergency, when other signals cannot 
be distinctly seen or relied upon. The explosion of one of 
these signals is a warning to stop the train immediately ; the 
explosion of two of these signals is a warning to check the speed 
of the train immediately and look out for the regular danger 
signal. The torpedo alarm has proven immensely serviceable 
and is in use on all roads. Especially is its use valuable when 
an accident occurs to a train, or if by any other cause the road 


TELEGRAPHY. 


257 


is obstructed, the rear brakeman is immediately required to go 
back the prescribed dista?ice with danger signals to stop any train 
or engine which may be following. Extra trai?is and engines are 
at all ti?nes to be expected , and therefore the most careful compli¬ 
ance with the precautions for safety is necessary. However, 
the “ torpedo ” sometimes fails in snowy weather, being brushed 
from the rail at those times by the snow and ice pushed ahead 
of the engine. Fusee signals are often used and seem to deserve a 
wider application, as they are said to be especially valuable in a 
driving snow storm, as they illuminate the whole track and the 
falling snowflakes. And the feature of having them burn only a 
stated length of time must commend itself at once as a valuable 
help in railroad service. If it were desired to make day fusee 
signals it could easily be done by burning some mixture com¬ 
pounded so as to produce a large volume of heavy smoke instead 
of a red light, as in night signals. 

Uniform code of signals. —At a recent meeting in New York 
of the Association of American Railroad Superintendents, the 
following uniform code of signals was recommended for adop¬ 
tion on all the roads in the country: 

enginemen’s signal by whistle. 

1. One short blast of the whistle is a signal to apply the 
brakes—stop. 

2. Two long blasts of the whistle is a signal to throw off the 
brakes. 

3. Tivo short blasts of the whistle, when running, is an an¬ 
swer to signal of conductor to stop at next station. 

4. Three blasts of the whistle, when standing, is a signal that 
the engine or train will back. 

5. Three short blasts of the whistle, while running, is a signal 
to be given by passing trains when carrying signals for a follow¬ 
ing train, to call attention to the signals, and four short blasts is 
the answer to it. 


258 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


6. Four long blasts of the whistle is a signal to call in the 
flagman or signalman. 

7. Six short blasts of the whistle is the engineman’s call for 

« 

signals. 

8. Two long, followed by two short blasts of the whistle, 
when running, is a signal for approaching a road-crossing at 
grade. 

9. One long blast of the whistle is a signal for approaching 
stations, railroad-crossings and junctions. 

10. A succession of short blasts of the whistle is an alarm 
for cattle, and may be used to call the attention of trainmen to 
danger. 

11. A blast of the whistle of five seconds’ duration will be 
considered as a long blast. 

conductor’s signals by bell cord. 

1. One tap of the gong, when the engine is standing, is a 
notice to start. 

2. Two taps of the gong, when the engine is standing, is a 
notice to call in the flagman. 

3. Two taps of the gong, when the engine is running, is a 
notice to stop at once. 

4. Thret taps of the gong, when the engine is standing, is a 
notice to back the train. 

5. Three taps of the gong, when the engine is running, is a 
notice to stop at the next station. 

One tap of the gong, when running, will be regarded as a 
warning that the train has parted, and the engineman will follow 
the rule prescribed for that emergency. 

LAMP, HAT, OR HAND SIGNALS. 

6. Swung across the track is a signal to stop. 

7. Raised and lowered vertically is a signal to move ahead. 

8. Swung in a circle is a signal to move back. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


2 .S 9 


ELECTRIC SAFETY SIGNALS. 

Electric signals have for years been in use to a greater or less extent on the 
railways of this and other countries, but in many cases have proven themselves 
unreliable, but of late years the system has been greatly improved, and many 
railways are now adopting the improved system, which is found to facilitate the 
movement of traffic with greater safety. It can hardly admit of doubt that in 
the near future “electric safety signals" will be generally adopted as an 
absolutely necessary adjunct to efficient and safe railroading. 

Electric signalling syste?ns .—There are now two distinct 
general systems of automatic electric signalling recognized. The 
wire system , in which a line wire forms the main circuit, and the 
rail system in which the main circuit consists of a long section 
of rails. 

The wire system. —The operation is substantially as follows: 
When the signal section is reached by a moving train, the first 
wheel of the locomotive closes an electric circuit and thereby 
brings a danger or block signal into view by the direct action of 
magnetism. The signal remains at danger until the locomotive 
has run to the end of the signal section, when as before the first 
wheel of the locomotive truck operates an instrument, com¬ 
pleting another circuit which releases the signal in the rear, 
causing it to show safety or all clear for a following train. This 
system, although doing good service on several roads, is not con¬ 
sidered as perfectly reliable for many reasons, therefore in many 
cases the rail circuit system is being substituted. 

The constant circuit rail system .—This system, controlled by 
the Union Electric Signal company, has been tested and is in 
operation on many of the best managed roads in the country, 
and is regarded as superior to all others owing to its extreme 
simplicity and reliability. 

Essential features embodied in the system .—Automatic block 
signals, road crossing signals, station approach signals, yard sig¬ 
nals, junction signals, broken and torn up rail detectors, hand- 
key signals, repeaters, and all the various signals, visional and 
audible, required in railway service. 


260 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Forms of signals .—The signals used are of several forms, 
according to circumstances, and mounted on an iron post oper¬ 
ated by mechanism contained in a box below; the target is 
painted red or white according to requirement; a lamp occupies 
a position on the top of the shaft for night use, which auto¬ 
matically presents a red and white light alternately as the sig¬ 
nals change; the signals are usually arranged to show full face 
when set for safety, and turned around edgewise for danger. 

Operation of the system .— In this system the rails of the track 
are substituted for the wire as conductors of the electric cur¬ 
rent, each section or block is insulated from that preceding 
and following it. The signals are set in blocks or sections of 
a mile, more or less, and in number as the character of the 
road may require, a curving roadway requiring more than one 
with miles of straight track. At one end of the section or 
block is placed the battery, consisting of a single cell, which will 
operate through a mile of track, one pole attached to either 
rail, while at the opposite end is placed the magnet, one elec¬ 
trode attached to either rail, thus establishing a constant metal¬ 
lic circuit through the rails and magnet, the circuit being made 
perfectly reliable by connecting the rail joints with wire. Expe¬ 
rience has shown that the apparatus is perfectly free from atmos¬ 
pheric influences. The rails being metal, of very large cross 
sections and consequent great conductivity, are vastly superior 
as conductors to any surrounding media, and hence the elec¬ 
tricity adheres to the rails and keeps the magnet magnetized, 
even during the heaviest rain or snow, in preference to pass¬ 
ing off into the earth. The magnet keeps the signal indicating 
“all clear” as its normal condition, but when a train enters 
upon the section the wheels and axles short circuit the cur¬ 
rent, because they are better conductors than the small wire of 
the magnet; and the magnet being thus demagnetized, re¬ 
leases its armature and the signal is instantly thrown to “ dan¬ 
ger,” and remains there as long as any part of the train is on the 


TELEGRAPHY. 


261 


section or block, warning all after comers to a halt. Tearing up 
a rail, or breaking one, interrupts the electric current and the 
signal goes to “ danger,” and it is impossible for it to say 
“safety” until the damage is repaired. Should the battery be 
too long neglected, go to sleep, say, at its post, like some human 
watchman, or become broken, “danger” is the signal until “safe¬ 
ty” is established. In brief, so long as the current of electric¬ 
ity is maintained and the track is clear, the signal says “safety;” 
interrupt that current by placing rails across the track, running 
a train upon it, or leaving a car on a block, and the signal is 
instantly thrown to “danger.” To these admirable arrangements 
for safety can be added an interlocking switch system, draw¬ 
bridge, crossing, and station approach signals. 

Overlapping or distant signals .—These are connected with the 
primary signals and overlap the sections in both directions. 
The signals on the right hand side of the track answering for 
trains going in one direction, and those on the left hand side 
for trains going in the other direction, both being notified by 
distant signals of the condition of the section in advance. 

The interlocking switch .—The switchstand is provided with a 
special lock, under control of an electro-magnet in such a man¬ 
ner that, when the magnet is demagnetized, the switch is locked 
and cannot be opened by any one in the ordinary way. The 
switch-locking magnet is connected in a secondary circuit with 
the rails of the block system, and is operated in connection 
therewith, and controlled by the approaching train. Provision, 
however, is made for controlling the switch magnet by means of 
a hand key, when it is necessary to do so, but this can only be 
done by maintaining a danger signal at a certain distance from 
the switch when it is opened to let a train enter upon the siding. 
This interlocking arrangement fully provides against the opening 
of a switch in the face of an approaching train, as the danger 
signal must be shown before the switch lever can be moved. To 
provide against the bridle-rods of the switch making electrical 


4*62 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


connection between the rails, they are cut and insulated, or the 
switch-rail is otherwise cut out, a joint is also insulated in the 
crossing rail. The Pennsylvania railroad has found an arrange¬ 
ment of this kind necessary, and the interlocking switch and 
signal system , as there exhibited, is the result of the diligent 
labor during many months of the best railway minds of Europe 

and America. —- 

SECTION XLVII. 

NUMERALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. 

Upon many lines the most extended and ingenious ways are 
sought to abbreviate and save time. Hence certain numerals 
and abbreviations are made use of to convey some special infor¬ 
mation, while others serve to furnish an answer. Although 
there exists to some extent a diversity in the meaning of 
some of them on different lines, the following numerals and 
abbreviations are more or less in common use. 


NUMERALS. 


1. Wait a minute. 19. 

2. Important. 20. 

3. Give me correct time. 22. 

4. Where shall I go ahead. 23. 

5. Anything for me ? 

6. I am ready for business. 25. 

7. Are you ready ? 26. 

8. Keep circuit closed. 29. 

9. Train dispatcher’s signal— 

preference over all other 30. 
business. 31. 

10. Be ready to take the stand- 33. 
ard time. 34. 

12. Answer how you under- 35. 

stand, and get my an- 40. 
swer before starting. 41. 

13. I, or we, understand. 44. 

15. Message for all offices. 73. 

17. Do you get my writing ? 77. 

18. What is the trouble ? 134. 


Give me report of— 
Repeat this back. 

Busy—on another line. 
Accident or death mes¬ 
sage. 

Your car statement is 
Put on G. W. [wanted. 
No circuit beyond me, my 
G. W. on. 

Finis. The end. 

How do you understand ? 
Answer prepaid. 

My instrument works bad- 
Inform all interested. [iy- 
What is the weather ? 

Write slower. 

Answer immediately. 
Accept my compliments. 

I have a message for you. 
Who is at the key ? 



TELEGRAPHY 


263 


A. All. 

Ads. Address. 

Af. After. 

A. M. Morning, Forenoon. 
Abd. Aboard. 

Abt. About. 

Acn. Accommodation. 

Agt. Agent. 

Agn. Again. 

Ahr. Another. 

Amt. Amount. 

A ns. Answer. 

Adj. Adjust. 

A. or Ar. Train arrived. 

B. Be. 

Bf. Before. 

Bk. Book or back. 

B. M. Baggage-man. 

Bn. Been. 

Bat. or Btty. Battery. 

Bbl. Barrel. 

Bnd. Bound. 

Bag. Baggage. 

Brk. Break. 

Bot. Bought. 

Btn. Between. 

Btr. Better. 

Brkg. Breaking. 

Bal. Balance. 

Bsns. Business. 

C. Can. 

Co. Commence, Company. 

C. O. D. Collect on Delivery 
C. I. F. Cost insurance 
freight 

C. F. I. Cost freight insur¬ 
ance. 

Cd. Could. 

Ci. or Ct. Circuit. 

Ck. Check. 

Cm. Come. 

Clk. Clerk. 

Ct. Connect, cent. 

Cmn. Common. 

Cur. Current. 

Com. Communication. 

Cndr. Conductor. [neer. 
C. & E. Conductor and Engi- 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

Da. Day. 

Dd. Did. 

Det. Detained. 

Dg. Doing. 

D. H. Free. 

Dn. Done. 

Ds. Does. 

Dw. Down. 

D. or Dep. Train departed. 

E. Of the. 

Ea. East. 

Eh. Each. 

Ev. Ever 
Ex, Express. 

Ehr. Either. 

Eng. Engine 
Engr. Engineer. 

Evy. Every. 

Exa. Extra. 

F. Of. 

Fi. Fire. 

Fr. or Fm. From. 

Frt. Freight. 

Fwd. Forward. 

F. O. B. Free on Board. 

G. A. Go Ahead. 

Gd. Good. 

Gg. Going. 

Gi. Give. 

G. M. Good Morning. 

G. P. M. Good Afternoon. 
G. Da. Good Day. 

,G. Bi. Good Bye. 

G. N. Good Night, Gone. 
Gen. General. 

G. W. Ground wire. 

Gtd. Guaranteed. 

G. B. A. Give better ad¬ 
dress. 

H. Have. 

Ha. Has. 

Hd. Had. 

Hf. Half. 

Hi. High. 

Hm. Him. 

Ho. Who. 

Hr. Hear, Here. 

Hs. His. 


Htl. Hotel. 

Hu. House. 

H. R. U. How are you 
Hw. How. 

Hy. Heavy 

I. By. 

Ik. Like. 

Ifm. Inform. 

Immy. Immediately. 

Inst. Instrument or instant. 
Impsb. Impossible. 

Impt. Important. 

Js. Just. 

K. Take, o’clock. 

Kg. Taking. 

Kn. Taken. 

Kp. Keep. 

Kw. Know. 

Kps. Compliments. 

Lv. Leave. 

Lrn. Learn. 

Ltr. Letter, later. 

Ltl. Little. 

M. Noon. 

Ma. May. 

Man. Manager. 

Md. Made. 

Mk. Make. 

Mh. Much. 

M. L. Minutes late. 

Mo. Month. 

Mr. More, Mister. 

Mt. Meet, empty. 

Mv. Move. 

Min. Minute. 

Msk. Mistake. 

Mtr. Matter. 

Msg. Message. 

Msgr. Messenger. 

N. No, not. 

Na. Name. 

Nh. North. 

Ni. Night. 

Nn. None. 

No. Number. 

N. B. Take notice. 

Nr. Near. 

Ns. News. 


264 

COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

Nv. Never. 

S. Was. 

Tmw To-morrow. 

Nsy. Necessary. 

Sa. Same. 

Tnk. Thank. 

Ntg. Nothing. 

Sd. Should. 

Tru. Through. 

N. M. No more. 

Sf. Stop for. 

Tkt. Ticket. 

O. K. Correct. 

S. R. Yes sir. 

Trn. Train. 

O. T. On Time. 

Sh. Such. 

Thot. Thought. 

Ov. Over. 

SI. Shall. 

U. You. 

Obg. Oblige. 

Sm. Some. 

Ur. Your. 

Ofr. Offer. 

Sn. Soon. 

Ut. But. - 

Ofs. Office. 

Ss. Says. 

Un. Under. 

Ohr. Other. 

St. Street. 

Und. Understand. 

Opr. Operator. 

Su. South. 

V. Very. 

O. S. All offices take notice. Sfb. Stop for breakfast. 

Vg. Village. 

Pa. Pay. 

Sfd. Stop for dinner. 

W. Will. 

Pc. Place. 

Sfn. Stop for night. 

Wa. Way. 

Pd. Paid. 

Sft. Stop for tea. 

Wd. Would, would. 

Pf. Proof. 

Sig. Signature. 

Wh. Which. 

P. M. Afternoon. 

Sml. Small. 

Wi. With, wire. 

P. O. Post Office. 

Stk. Stock. 

Wk. Week, weak. 

Pis. Please. 

Smtg. Something. 

Wl. Well. 

Ppr. Paper. 

Supt. Superintendent 

Wn. When. 

Psb. Possible. 

T. The. 

Wr. Where, were. 

Pass. Passenger. 

Td. To-day. 

Ws. West. 

Prst. President. 

Tf. Tariff. 

Wt. What. 

Q. Question. 

Tg. Thing. 

Wy. Why. 

Qk. Quick. 

Ti. Time. 

Whr. Whether, weather. 

R. For. 

Tk. Think. 

Wrd. W’ord. 

Rk. Work. 

Tm. Them. 

W. & W. Wood & Water. 

Rr. Repeat. Railroad. 

Tn. Than, then. 

Wo. Who is at the key. 

Rs. Raise. 

Tr. Their, there. 

W. B. Way bill. 

Rt. Right, Write. 

Ts. This. 

X. Next. 

Rep. Report. 

Tt. That 

Y. Yes. 

Rhr. Rather. 

Tw. Town. 

Yr. Year. 

Rmn. Remain. 

Ty. They. 

?. What did you say ? 

Rtn. Return. 

Tel. Telegraph. 

peat. 

Rif. Relief. 

Tho. Though. 

&. And. 


SECTION XLVIII. 

MOVEMENT OF TRAINS ON SINGLE TRACK BY SPECIAL TELE¬ 
GRAPHIC ORDERS. 

The greatest care and vigilance should be exercised in the 
receipt and use of special telegraphic orders. Whenever trains 
are moved by special order, otherwise than as provided in the 
schedule, it becomes of vital importance that all the trains con- 



TELEGRAPHY. 265 

cerned should fully understand the orders. First-class, efficient 
and reliable train-men and operators should be employed on 
salaries sufficiently good to retain their services. Usually men 
who have the largest responsibilities in the way of human life 
and comfort are paid beggarly wages. Trains should be run by 
time-cards as far as possible, and no special orders issued unless 
absolutely necessary. There should be a uniformity in train 
orders, so that conductors and enginemen changing roads may 
be conversant with each and every order they may receive. 
More attention should be paid to the registering by conductors 
at junctions. More side tracks and telegraph stations as a rule, 
so that trains can clear each other with but little delay, accord¬ 
ing to schedule rules; or, where a special order is given by tele¬ 
graph, the dispatcher can have an understanding from all the 
parties interested in the change before any train proceeds to 
make it. Most roads might avoid a good deal of the dispatch¬ 
ing now found necessary by a careful adjustment of time cards 
and giving slower time , particularly to heavy trains. In the 
anxiety to get the most work out of the rolling stock time 
is often made too short, which renders train-men liable to be¬ 
come nervous and excited and impatient, and they commence 
to call and clamor for the dispatcher, and the result is, some 
one or more of them forget some order and disaster follows. 

“ System and discipline are the best and most trustworthy 
guarantees of safety in railroading. Without them a perfect 
equipment is valueless/’ 

The present system of train dispatching, although ordinarily 
satisfactory, if properly used, often provides little or no check 
upon the individual. 

“The weak point of the system is that important movements 
are intrusted to the hands of single individuals, or to two per¬ 
sons similarly circumstanced (for example, conductor and engine- 
man), so that if they blunder, the error often goes on to result, 
without chance of detection.” 


266 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


“ In each case of accident the fault can usually be traced to 
one or more individuals who disobeyed some order or neglected 
some precaution. It may therefore be said that the individual 
was at faidt and not the system, but it must be remembered 
that the system is, or should be, devised to keep a check upon 
the individual. Human agents can never be infallible, and.the 
very best wiil sometimes err. The most competent may, under 
certain unforeseen circumstances, become totally incompetent. 
If these agents never made mistakes no system would be 
needed, but as the individual cannot be prevented from doing 
wrong a system is necessary which will reduce the liability to 
err, by inducing regularity , and when an error is made detect 
the error as soon as made —a system is good in proportion to the 
rapidity with which it corrects the mistakes of individuals, and no 
system can be called cumbrous which absolutely prevents an in¬ 
cipient error from going into operation.” 

This branch of railroading does not seem to be recognized as 
the important part of the service which it really is, and few 
superintendents give it the careful attention it should have. 


SPECIAL ORDERS. 

Meaning of “ orders ” and “ scheduled —The word “ orders ” 
in this connection means “ telegraphic train orders,” and the 
expression “running by schedule ” means running according to 
the time table and the rules printed thereon or required to be 
observed therewith. All trains and engines are run by schedule 
unless otherwise directed by orders from the office of the divis¬ 
ion superintendent. A train order takes the precedence always, 
and, on the arrival of a train at the point designated in its 
orders, unless the order is renewed, it falls back on its rights as 
given in time schedule. 

Unifomn syste?n .—In the movement of trains by special orders 
there is no unifomn system; nearly every road has a system of its 



TELEGRAPHY. 


267 


own differing from the others in details, and often on the differ¬ 
ent divisions of the same road the manner of giving and receiv¬ 
ing the train orders is different. However, the principles are com¬ 
mon on nearly every road in the United States and Canada. 

Trains , how designated in orders. —Regular trains are desig¬ 
nated by their time table numbers; irregular trains usually by 
the word “extra” or “special” and the engine number, and 
engines without trains by the word “ engine ” and its number, 
and any other trains by such names as may be necessary to fully 
designate such trains. On some roads for a train under flag 
is added “ flagged by ” and the designation of the flagging train. 

Train number. —Many roads require the train number to be 
displayed on the caboose. “ The plan of the Lake Shore road, 
which requires the train number to be displayed in the tower of 
the caboose, which is plainly visible both by day and night, is 
particularly commendable in the fact that it shows both the 
number of the train and the section plainly and unmistakably 
through the rear windows until the “ tail ” lights grow dim. The 
Baltimore & Ohio road also take the precaution to have the 
numbers of their engines placed in very large figures on the ten¬ 
ders. This aids the operator as well as those on passing trains 
to distinguish more readily a train, which is identified by its 
engine number.” As an additional precaution, it has been sug¬ 
gested that the number of the train be inserted at each side of 
the headlight immediately in front of the reflector. It has also 
been suggested “ that each caboose be provided with a box or 
deck (a movable box for trains without a caboose) showing from 
the front and rear the number of train, section and signals. If 
no signals the device should be so arranged as to indicate “ no 
signals.” 

Train wire. —The line or wires chiefly used for directing the 
movement of trains by telegraphic order. 

Address of orders. —All special orders for the movement of 


268 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


trains are sent through a station operator; the most common prac¬ 
tice and the safest one, addressed to both conductor and engineer. 
On some roads the name of the conductor is given in full, while 
on others the order is addressed to conductor only, a practice 
not to be commended, although the mode of procedure is essen¬ 
tially the same, as both conductor and engineer must have 
copies thereof, and fully understand the order, before leaving a 
station. The number of the train and place where the order is 
to be delivered are also included in the address. 

Agents addressed .—On some roads train orders aie addressed 
to agents to hold such train as may be required, for orders, who 
will sign and answer the same as conductors, for the faithful 
performance of such orders. They are held alike responsible 
with the operator. This is to relieve the operator from the ne¬ 
cessity of leaving his instruments to attend the signalling of trains 
for orders. 

Train orders to agents, or other station employes. —Whenever an 
order is sent to an agent, operator, or other station employe to 
hold any train for any purpose, the order must be as strictly ob¬ 
served as if addressed to conductor, or conductor and engineer. 
Station agents, operators and others will, in such cases, deliver 
copies of the order received, to conductors and engineers, and 
this will be done even when the train for which they were held 
has arrived. 

The body. —When practicable only one transaction should be 
included in the body of a “single order,” and no instructions 
should be included that are not strictly running orders. While 
on many roads only the number of the train is stated or given 
in the body of the order, on others the number of the train 
and engine number are both given, similar to that practiced on 
the Wabash system of roads; while on others the number of the 
train and also the name of the conductor is given, and as an 
extra precaution it has been suggested to add the engine number 
to the latter. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


269 

“If the train order gives number of train, name of conductor 
and number of engine, then certainly there can be no excuse 
for failure to identify, especially if both engine and train num¬ 
ber are conspicuously displayed.” This would, however, add to 
the work of the dispatcher, and necessarily make matters more 
complicated without perhaps being any particular advantage. 

Abbreviations and signals. —All orders must be written in full, 
and no abbreviations used except the initials of the superintendent 
or train dispatcher, C. & E. for conductor and engineer, OK. 
for correct, and the numerals 12 and 13, meaning respectively, 
“answer how you understand and get my answer before start¬ 
ing,” and “I, or we, understand.” The abbreviation “ans.” is 
used on some roads instead of the numeral 12. 

Precaution in sending orders. —Before an order is sent by tele¬ 
graph to give a train order to proceed against another having the 
right of track, an order must first be sent to the train having the 
right, or an order placed ahead of it to hold it for orders, and 
get a reply, whenever it can be done, before giving orders to 
another train to run upon its time. 

“ Rights ” conveyed by special orders. —A special order is never 
to be considered to mean anything but what it plainly expresses. 
Special orders give no special rights whatever against any trains 
except such as are distinctly na?ned therein. Trains moving by 
special order against certain specified trains must be governed 
strictly and entirely by their schedule rights as agai?ist all other 
trains not specified. A train having a special order up to a 
specified time , upon the expiration of said time is governed by 
their schedule rights. Telegraph orders must be carried out 
implicitly so far as they relate to the trains named in them. An 
order to run regardless of a certain train refers to that train only. 
An order to meet and pass another train at a given point gives 
no right whatever against any other trains coming or passing. 

Special orders regarding sections of trains. —In moving trains 


270 COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

by special order each section, or engine, is taken and considered 
as a separate and distinct train, and receives and runs only under 
special orders addressed to its own conductor and engineer. 
The orders specify the trains to which they refer, and do not 
affect trains or engines which may be following signals on the 
leading trains, unless such following trains or engines are dis¬ 
tinctly stated in the special orders. 

Blanks .—All special orders must be given in writing and writ¬ 
ten on the blanks (or manifold paper) furnished for that pur¬ 
pose, printed forms in which blank spaces are left for the parts 
which are variable are furnished by some roads, but manifold 
paper is used on most roads, furnished in book form. Some 
roads use different colored paper or blanks. 

Manifold paper .—The use of manifold paper for orders, by 
which as many copies as are required are made at one writing, 
and all exactly alike, has become quite common. It not only 
saves time but it insures the identity of the order. On some 
roads, for convenience, the manifold paper is prepared in pack¬ 
ages and marked 3, 5, 7, etc., as the case may be, so that the 
operator can, on the instant, be ready to copy as many as the 
dispatcher may request. 

Manifold paper , how used .—A sheet of tin is, or should be, 
provided for the purpose, upon which are laid alternate sheets 
of thin yellow or white, and carbon paper, the yellow being gen¬ 
erally used. The carbon paper should never be written upon, 
but placed between the yellow sheets, and the impression 
taken by writing on the top sheet with a stylus, or a good No. 3 
or No. 4 pencil. 

As the thin yellow sheets of manifold are objectionable to 
handle in many cases, a white paper of more body is often used 
to advantage. 

Numbering orders .—On the majority of lines special orders 
are numbered consecutively, for one day, week, or month, com- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


271 


mencing with No. 1 immediately after midnight. In answering 
an order, when numbered, the operator should in all cases begin 
by repeating the number of the order. 

Methods of se?iding special orders. —There are two distinct 
methods of sending orders, some roads practicing one and some 
the other. The common plan has been to send the order to 
each train concerned, separately, but in the “duplicate” or 
“double order” system the dispatcher calls up both offices 
where orders can soonest be delivered to the trains concerned, 
and sends the order to each at one writing, the orders worded 
so that the same one serves for both trains. This system is con¬ 
sidered to be the most reliable and less liable to error, although 
the advocates of the old system claim, with a good schedule of 
rules, and train men who understand them thoroughly, the short¬ 
est foim of train orders, which will embrace what is required 
and be understood by all, sent separately to each train concerned, 
is the safest and best. However, the latter system has several 
serious defects, among which may be mentioned the liability of 
giving to one train a meeting place different from that given to 
the other; hence, the mental strain is very great in the mind of 
the dispatcher; especially so with men of moderate skill, who 
have ever the feeling that an error may be or may have been 
committed. No system can be regarded as safe that leaves any 
chance for an error or accident to happen, either through inex¬ 
perience, forgetfulness, bad handwriting, or any other cause. 

Objections to the double order system .—Although the plan is 
acknowledged to be a superior one, it is claimed it cannot be 
worked to advantage on some roads, for instance, where, as it is 
often the case, a large number of operators are also station 
agents and have other duties to attend in and out of the office, it 
would be, perhaps, seldom both offices could be made to respond 
just at the same time, and would consume more time in the 
end than the old system of sending each order separately. How¬ 
ever, “when practicable, orders (for two or more trains) should 


2 72 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


be sent to each train at the same time, but the order to the train 
having the right of way should always be made complete first.” 

Advantages of the duplicate or double order syste?n .—This meth¬ 
od of orders possesses many practical advantages over the old 
system, and seems to be the result of necessity and experience. 
Its worth is demonstrated by the fact, that a large proportion of 
the leading railways of the country have now adopted it, and 
the system will undoubtedly in time come into general- use. 
Among the points in its favor may be stated that the mental 
strain arising from the other method is in a measure entirely 
absent in this, which alone must at once commend itself. 

“In preparing this order the dispatcher cannot possibly give 
different meeting points, as there is but one message for both 
trains, and being transmitted to both simultaneously each must 
get the same as the other.” Besides this, each operator who 
copies the order very naturally listens to the other's as the un¬ 
derstanding is being repeated, and thus still more adds a valua¬ 
ble precaution against error. Some observe the commendable 
practice of underlining each word as repeated back. When 
several meeting points are named in an order, each train named, 
whether directly affected or not, is made familiar with the gen¬ 
eral programme and meeting places. 

Probably no road in the Union makes better use of the telegraph in the mov¬ 
ing of delayed trains than the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne & Chicago, as the trains 
are numerous, and it requires close figuring to get a delayed train through with¬ 
out detaining others. The system of “ double orders,” as practiced on this 
road for several years, is found to be in every way satisfactory and much prefer¬ 
able to the old system. 

Transmission of orders .—The common form of procedure is 
as follows: The train dispatcher calls up each office separately, 
if to be sent to each train separately, or both offices if to be sent 
to each at one writing, and first gives the special signal indicat¬ 
ing that a train order is to be sent (the signal varying on different 
lines, the numerals 12 or 31 is probably more generally used) 
after the signal the word “copy” should follow, and the number 


TELEGRAPHY. 


273 


indicating how many copies are to be made if more than three 
are required. The order of transmission is then as follows: 
First , the number; second , the place from and date; third , the 
address ; fourth, the body of the order, which must state in clear 
and concise form the exact thing to be done ; fifth , the signature 
which is either the initials of the train dispatcher alone, or 
-annexed to those of the superintendent, followed by the initial 
of the operator sending if not transmitted personally by the 
dispatcher. 

Repeating back orders .—Special orders, when communicated 
by telegraph, should be as soon as possible repeated back to the 
office, from which they were received. If the train has arrived 
the order should be read aloud by the operator, in hearing of the 
conductors and engineers or others to whom the same is ad¬ 
dressed. Such conductors and engineers or others if they 
understand it, must then personally sign their own names below 
said orders. The operator will then repeat the order back to 
the train dispatcher, word for word, as originally sent, with fol¬ 
lowing changes: Instead of “from dispatcher’s office,” say 
“from their own office,” addressed to train dispatcher, and com¬ 
mence body of order by saying 13, (meaning I or we under¬ 
stand), repeat the body of order, then give as signature the 
names of the conductors and engineers or others addressed. 
No alterations or erasure must be made; if it becomes necessary 
to make any change, except as above, in the first copy, the dis¬ 
patcher must repeat the entire order, and a new copy be made 
by the receiving operator. 

“ If a train has not arrived—as is the case many times every 
day, where a dispatcher anticipates orders—the operator repeats 
the order back to the dispatcher precisely as received, and on 
the arrival of the train secures the understanding from the con¬ 
ductor and engineer, and transmits the same to dispatcher as 
soon as possible thereafter. 


274 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Repeating back , when the o?'der is setit to both offices at the same 
time. —If both are ready to repeat back at once the one receiv¬ 
ing the order for the superior train, or for the train first named 
in the address, generally has precedence; otherwise the first one 
ready will repeat first. However, this should be fixed by rule. 

The repeating back must be done in all cases by reading from 
the copy that is actually to be delivered. Neither copy must be 
delivered until both operators know that “ correct ” has been 
given to both offices, and each office should read the repeating 
done by the other that any discrepancy may be doubly guarded 
against. 

When both offices are not on the same wire, the main office 
will inform each when the other has received “correct,” and 
when one order is to be delivered at the main office, the other 
will assume that it is correct there, as orders to be delivered at 
the main office will be duplicates of the corresponding orders 
sent to other offices. 

The completion of orders. —When a special order has been re¬ 
ceived and repeated back the order is not complete until the 
dispatcher’s acknowledgment is telegraphed back, and noted on 
the order; if the understanding is correct the dispatcher usually 
responds by giving the “ number ” of the order, “ OK,” “cor¬ 
rect,” or “ all right,” and correct time over his signature, (the 
reply varying on different roads), probably the word “ correct ” 
is most generally used. The operator then writes the reply on 
the order affixing his own name (or initials) beneath it, and de¬ 
livers copies to conductor and engineer, or to whoever addressed* 
retaining one copy in the office, and then arranges the signal so 
as to allow the train to proceed. 

Iniportance of the word “correct.” —No order is of any value 
without the word “ correct ” written upon it, and operators will 
under no circumstances deliver orders until dispatchers author¬ 
ize them to indorse them so correct. In order to save time and 
allow the operator to get copies ready, the dispatcher may send 


TELEGRAPHY. 


275 


an order a short time before it is intended to go into effect, as 
he may desire to have an understanding from another conductor 
in the meantime. Hence the word “correct” is of very great 
importance. 

As a precautionary measure against accidents the management of several 
roads have recently issued instructions to the effect that, when special orders, 
supplements or notices are received, involving the safety of trains, the engine- 
man shall see that his fireman reads and understands them. And the conductor 
shall see that his baggage master, or, on freight trains, a reliable brakeman, 
reads and understands the same. Firemen, baggage masters or brakeman, 
having read orders as above, must keep them in mind and must be prepared, 
to correct any mistake which comes under their observation. 

Diversity in the practice of repeating back and verifying orders .— 
While it is the practice on some roads to defer the repeating 
until the signatures of the trainmen are secured, on others, 
whether the train is at the station or not, each operator in turn 
who receives the order, immediately repeats it verbatim to the 
dispatcher, securing his “ OK, ” and afterwards secures the sig¬ 
natures of the trainmen or whoever addressed, and transmits 
them to the train dispatcher in connection with the train number 
or destination, who then acknowledges same in some prescribed 
form, using “OK,” “correct,” or “all right,” followed by his 
signature, which must be endorsed on each copy with the exact 
time it was given, when the order is then ready for delivery. 
The latter method is preferred for several reasons. When a 
dispatcher has a great many trains to handle it is quite obvious 
that much time is saved by repeating back the order and holding 
the operator responsible for securing correct understanding and 
signatures of the trainmen, as against the system of invariably 
holding a train for the conductor’s understanding to be trans¬ 
mitted and dispatcher’s “ OK ” secured, for the reason that a 
dozen trains might be waiting at as many stations at the same 
time for completion of their orders. Another advantage in this 
system is in case of interruption to line all orders that have been 
given are verified , and trains can act upon them accordingly. 


276 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Interruption of line .—When, by reason of the telegraph fail¬ 
ing, or other cause, the understanding cannot be sent, or the 
“correct” returned, the order is void , and must be so considered 
by all concerned, “ but a reasonable time should be allowed for 
communication to be restored, before allowing the train for 
which the order is designed to proceed without it.” 

Repetition of the sa?ne order for different trains. —Operators 
having the same order for a number of different trains or sec¬ 
tions need not repeat the order for every train or section, but 
after sending the reply once and getting the “OK” to it, can then 
add the balance of the signatures, giving the number of the 
order before each signature, and getting the proper “OK” for 
each. 

Delivermgorders.— Operators are not required to leave their 
instruments to deliver orders, unless in case of emergency the 
dispatcher so directs. The conductor will go into the office and 
receive and receipt for the orders there. Operators are, how¬ 
ever, held strictly responsible for the safe and correct delivery 
of an order, and must personally deliver all orders received by 
them unless relieved from such duty by special permission of the 
train dispatcher. 

On some roads the conductor is required to sign the under¬ 
standing of the order, and, after receiving an order, will, as soon 
as it is endorsed “correct,”personally deliver to his engineer a 
copy of the same, retaining also a copy for himself, in which 
case they must compare their copies to see that they agree, and 
that they understand them alike. 

Operators in tram dispatchers office .—They are not permitted 
to give an “OK” to train orders until directed to do so by the 
train dispatcher, and in sending special orders and answering 
“OK” to the same, they are required to annex their own initial 
letter to those of the superintendent and train dispatcher. 

Copies of orders. —A copy of every order to any train must 
be held by the conductor, the engineer, and the operator deliv- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


277 


ering it, and to insure correctness, and save time, the three cop¬ 
ies should be made at one writing by the use of manifold paper 
which should be so arranged that three impressions or more, if 
required, may be taken. When an order affects two trains, the 
order as given to one must be an exact copy of that given to 
the other. 

Signatures. —Operators must sign all orders they deliver, and 
get, on the copies they retain, signatures of the person to whom 
the orders are delivered. 

Orders copied in a book .—Generally operators are required to 
copy all orders in a book provided for that purpose, and record 
on the margin of such orders the initial letter of operators 
receiving or sending such orders, together with the correct time 
received or sent. The copies of orders retained by operators 
should remain in the- book, and finally be sent to headquarters 
for inspection. 

Breaking circuit. —No other operator is allowed to break cir¬ 
cuit, while a train order is being sent, unless authorized to use 
the proper signal, which entitles him to the circuit. 

Numerals. —In sending, writing, and repeating back, all num¬ 
bers of trains, engines, and switches, excepting those in the ad¬ 
dress of an order, should be written in words followed by the 
figures. The word “hundred,” however, may be omitted, thus: 
“engine five ninety-two (592).” On some roads the numerals 
are simply represented by figures, and on others, the figures are 
duplicated with a comma between. 

Orders for train not arrived. —An order received for a train 
not arrived must, when folded, have the train number marked on 
it and be placed in a conspicuous place before the operator to 
await the arrival of the train. 

Precautions when orders are awaiting an expected train or en¬ 
gine.—On roads where the proper train order signal is only dis¬ 
played when orders are awaiting an expected train or engine, on 


278 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


receiving a train order the operator must at once display the sig¬ 
nal, whether the train for which they have orders is at their sta¬ 
tion or not, and then reply that such train is held. When this 
signal is displayed at a station every train arriving must come to 
a full stop, and the conductor and engineer report at the tele¬ 
graph office without delay for orders; however, operators should 
be careful not to signal a train for which they have no orders, 
but should they do so, they are required to give the conductor a 
written notice that it was an error. 

Operators must watch closely for expected trains, and in case 
a train or any part of it has passed a telegraph office they must 
not depend entirely on the proper signal to hold the train for 
orders, but watch carefully that engineers see the signal or at 
once find the conductor and call his attention to the displayed 
signal. In case of fogs or severe storms torpedoes should be 
used, which are provided by most roads for that purpose. Oper- 
tors should remember that this may be a matter of life and 
death, and leave nothing undone to insure safety ; they must see 
that the signals are prominently displayed, and observe that 
cars on sidings do not obstruct the view, or in case of a flag or 
lantern being used, that the wind does not blow the flag down 
or extinguish the light. The absence of signals at telegraph 
stations does not, however, excuse conductors from inquiring if 
any orders have been received for them where their trains stop 
regularly. 

When operators have orders for more than’ one train, requir¬ 
ing a continuous display of the signal, trains not affected by the 
orders may leave the station while signal is displayed, on receiv¬ 
ing a release from the operator on the form provided for the 
purpose. 

When all orders are made complete and delivered, for which 
the signal was displayed, it must be taken in, and no train must 
leave the station until this has been done, except where conduc¬ 
tor has received a release on the proper form. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


279 


Duties when the normat position of the signal indicates danger. 
—On roads where the rules require each office, while open for 
business, to keep the normal position of the signal at danger 
when orders have been received for any train, the operator is 
usually required to stop all trains of the same class for which 
orders are given until the order has been delivered and properly 
acknowledged, giving clearance orders in each case to trains not 
affected. When a train approaches a telegraph office, and there 
are no orders, and all other trains have cleared the station the 
specified time, the danger signal must be withdrawn, but only 
between the time the train whistles for the station and the time 
the rear car of the train has passed the telegraph office a certain 
distance. Trains will be considered as having passed the sta¬ 
tion when the rear of the trai?i has passed the telegraph office, 
whether on main or side track. In case a train stops on side 
track without rear car having passed the telegraph office, the 
danger signal must be displayed at once and trains must be 
governed accordingly. Where offices are so located that a view 
can be obtained of the track, operators must look out before 
trains approach and see if the track is clear and switches prop¬ 
erly set. 

Precautions where offices are closed at night. —At offices where 
there are no night operators, the signal must be fastened by the 
day operator at safety, before closing the office, and light ex¬ 
tinguished between the hours of 7 p. m. and 7 a. m., unless 
through some emergency it is necessary to keep office open; in 
which case the signal must be used the same as at other offices, 
and will be observed accordingly. 

Orders to a train to run upon the time of another train. —When 
necessary to give a train an order to run upon the time of an¬ 
other train, and before an answer can be had from the train 
having right to the road, an order must be sent to the agent and 
operator, or watchman, or other employe and operator at the 
station, to put out red signals and hold the train for orders , and 


28 o 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


their reply received before giving the opposing train any orders. 
The parties addressed are required to remain on duty until the 
arrival of the train, which they are to hold, and both must know 
that the train has received the orders awaiting it before allowing 
it to proceed. If there are not two responsible employes at the 
station, the train having the right to the road should receive and 
reply to their order before sending an order to the latter named 
train. On some roads, however, when there are not two per¬ 
sons in attendance at the station, the operator is directed to dis¬ 
play the signal, and train orders given, on receipt of his answer, 
signed by him alone. 

“ On the subject of time orders there is a diversity of opinion. It is claimed 
by some that if the order be correctly conveyed to both trains, in the same 
words, there is no more danger than attends the running by time-card, and that 
the giving of a time order not only relieves the dispatcher, but makes train-men 
more prompt in their movements at stations, knowing that idling a few minutes 
may detain them an hour, and prevents the detention of a superior train by an. 
inferior one. While the time order undoubtedly possesses advantages over the 
absolute order, the general feeling seems one of mistrust regarding the former— 
a feeling that its peculiar advantages scarcely compensate for the possibility of 
error; and in no case is the giving of time orders to trains of equal class prac¬ 
ticed.” Much risk in time orders arises from the possibility of train-men having 
variation of watches. 

Five minutes for variation of watches .—Whenever any train is 
held by special rule or order, until a certain time, at any time,, 
for the arrival of some train or engine moving in the opposite 
direction, it must invariably wait at the point designated five 
mviutes for variation of watches beyond the special time, should 
the train for which it is held fail to arrive. The approaching train 
must not use any part of these five minutes. This five minute 
rule must be fully observed, whether the order holding the train 
be addressed directly to conductor and engineer, or to agent, 
operator or other station employe. 

Trams detained or held between telegraph stations .—No wild or 
extra train or engine is permitted to run on a railway without the 
knowledge of, and under instructions from the dispatcher, except 


TELEGRAPHY. 


281 


where a train or engine has been detained at some point where 
no telegraph orders can be got, and when, from any cause, it has 
lost its right to the road. In such cases the conductor may 
require the first train passing in the same direction to carry a 
red signal on its engine for him, provided he is ready to follow 
immediately, which will give his train the right to follow the 
train carrying the red signal to the next telegraph station only, 
where he must ask for orders. Regular trains which have lost 
their rights on track can also require a passing train, of the same 
class to carry a red signal for them under the same regulations. 
The conductor of train carrying the red signal under such cir¬ 
cumstances must report the fact to the train dispatcher at the 
first telegraph station immediately on arrival, naming the point 
from which he has flagged the other train, unless the normal 
position of the signal stands at “ danger.” On receiving the 
report, the telegraph operator must display the proper signal 
and keep the same in view until the flagged train arrives. 

No night operator .—Should a train be held at a telegraph sta¬ 
tion where there is no night operator, the conductor may call 
the day operator into the office to get orders for him. 

Starting of trains after receiving orders .—Trains are required 
to start immediately after receiving an order authorizing them 
to do so, unless unexpectedly detained, when the fact must be 
promptly stated and new orders obtained. Going to meals will 
not be allowed as an excuse for delaying a train either before or 
after getting orders. Early notice should be given of the 
expected starting time of trains being prepared and wanting 
orders. No train, however, is allowed to leave ahead of sched¬ 
ule time. 


282 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


SECTION XLIX. 

FORMS OF TELEGRAPHIC TRAIN ORDERS. 

In successful train dispatching economy of time is an import¬ 
ant feature. Uniformity and simplicity of orders is a necessity. 
“Simplicity implies brevity,” and the necessity for brevity also 
brings about a necessity for rules explaining their intention. On 
most roads one of the best safeguards has been the adoption of 
certain prescribed forms , under which orders shall be given, 
“and it is found to economize time, and to add to the efficiency 
of train men to embody, in a set of rtiles which the men may 
study at their leisure, positive directions how to act on each of 
the usual forms of orders, rather than to burden the wire by 
repeating such directions in the body of each order, and thus 
give the men no opportunity to read them except when so occu¬ 
pied as to be liable to give them but a passing consideration.” 
The prescribed forms differ in some details on different roads, 
and are either lettered or numbered, as form “A;” form “ B,” 
etc., or form “i,” form “2,” etc., etc.; and are, as a rule, 
adhered to: “but it is one thing to prescribe a stereotyped set 
of train orders; quite another thing, and perhaps the more 
difficult, to see to or insure their practical working. The forms 
prescribed may be ever so commendable, yet there is a doubt if 
they can always be adhered to and a still greater doubt whether 
the train dispatcher will follow them,” as he generally favors the 
practice to which he has been accustomed. 


Classification of forms .—Orders may be classified as follows : 
“meeting point orders,” “regardless orders,” “time orders,” 
“passing point orders,” “signal orders,” “holding orders,” 



TELEGRAPHY. 


283 


“orders annulling trains,” orders to run wild; annulling an 
order, etc., etc. 


FORM OF TRANSMISSION. 

The following “example” of a train order as transmitted, 
including date, address, body, and signature, will serve as an 
illustration of the usual method and form of transmission of all 
others herein presented. Usually only the office call is given in 
the date and address, instead of spelling out the name of the 
place. 

Duplicate order making a definite meeting point. 


Order No. i. [Fr.] Cleveland 10. 

r™ n ^ ^ (No. 2—Alliance. 

[To] C. and E. j Nq 3 _ Rensingtoa 

Trains No. two 2 and three 3 will meet at Earlville— 12. 

(Sig.) J. P. A. 

For instructions regarding the transmission, repeating back and completion of 
orders see Section XLVIII. 


PRESCRIBED FORMS. 

Owing to the lack of uniformity in the forms as practiced on 
different roads, no general forms can be given that will apply to 
all roads. However, with perhaps some variation in details, one 
or more of the following examples, for the cases described and 
ordinarily occurring, are practiced on most of roads, and re¬ 
quired to be observed precisely in accordance with their plain 
meaning. As a rule the orders are sent on most of roads, when 
practicable, to all the trains affected by them, at one and the 
same time ; but notices of obstruction to track, repairs of bridges, 
or other matters which cannot be expressed in the prescribed 
forms, are sent to trains in such forms as may be necessary to 
cover the case. 


284 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


FORMS OF TRAIN ORDERS. EXAMPLES. 

Form “ A”—order making a definite meeting poi?it .— 

First Example. 

Trains numbers.and.will meet at 


Second Example. 

Train No.conductor. 

and train No.conductor. 

will meet at. 

Third Example. 

Train No.engine.and train No. 

engine.will meet at. 

On this order the trains named will run to the point named; 
the train arriving first waiting until the other arrives, unless they 
receive another order authorizing their train to proceed. 

Form u jB”— regardless orders .— 

First Example. 

Train No.will run to. 

regardless of train No. 

Second Example. 

Train No.will run from. 

to.regardless of train No. 

Third Example. 

Train No.conductor.will 

run to.regardless of train No. 

conductor. 

On this order the first named" train will run to the point desig¬ 
nated, and the last named train must not leave the point desig¬ 
nated until after the first named train arrives there. 

Fourth Example. 

Train No.will run regardless of No.it is 

abandoned to-day. 




























TELEGRAPHY. 


285 


For?n “ C—Time orders. 

First Example. 

Train No.can have until.to run 

to.against train No. 

Second Example. 

Train No.engine.can have until 

.to go to.against train No. 

.engine . 

Third Example. 

Train No.conductor . 

can have until.to run to . 

» 

against train No.conductor. 

On this order the first named train has the right to run to the 
point designated within the time given; the last named train 
must not leave the point designated until five minutes after the 
time named, unless the other train has arrived. 

Fourth Example. 

Train No.can use.of the 

time of train No.between .and 


Fifth Example. 

Train No.conductor . can 

use..minutes on time of train No. 

conductor.to run from. 

to. 

On this order the first named train can use so much of the 
time of the second named train as is specified in the order, to 
get to the point indicated, or to any previous station. The sec¬ 
ond named train will run not less than five minutes behind the 
time allowed the first named train. 

Sixth Example. 

Train No.will run.late 

from.to. 


































286 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Form u jD”— passing point orders .— 

Train No.will pass train No.at 


Form “ F”.—Signal orders , or orders for trains running in 
sections .— 

First Example. 

Train No..will carry.signals from. 

.to.for.engine. 


Second Example. 

Engine.;.will run as.section of train No. 


Third Example. 

Engine.will carry.signals, and run from 

.to.as.section train No.... 


Train No. . 
.... to.... 

Train No. . 
.to 


The. 

.as 


Fourth Example. 

.will carry.signals from. 

.for extra passenger train. 

Fifth Example. 

.will carry.signals from. 

.for extra freight. 

Sixth Example. 

signals carried by train No.for engine 

.section will be taken in at. 


Form “ F”.—Fdolding orders .— 

First Example. 

Hold train No.for orders or until train No. .. ., 

arrives. 

Second Example. 

Hold train No.conductor.for orders. 








































TELEGRAPHY. 287 

Third Example. 

t 

Hold train No.engine.for orders or until 

train No.engine.arrives. 

This order is addressed to the agent or operator who must 
show the same to the conductor and engineer of the train 
designated, who will wait indefinitely for further orders, or until 
the trains specified have arrived. The operator must not give 
the “13” to such an order unless he has displayed the proper 
signal, and is assured beyond any doubt he can hold the train as 
directed in the order. 

Form {t G” — A?innlling orders .— 

First Example. 

Train No. this date.to 

.is annulled. Inform all interested. 

Second Example. 

Train No.of. is abandoned. 

This order is addressed “To all concerned,” and a copy must 
be delivered to all trains interested, and conductors’ and en¬ 
gineers’ signatures obtained, and transmitted the same as for any 
other order. 


Form “H”—Orders to ru?i wild .— 

First Example. 

Engine.will run wild from 

to. 


Second Example. 


Special or extra train No.conductor.. 

.or engine No. engineer 


will run wild 


to 


On this order the train or engine named will run to the point 
designated, keeping out ot the way of all regular trains. 






















288 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Form “/”—Orders to work trains .— 


Work train engine.will run wild from. 

.to.and work between 


.and. to-day until 

.o’clock. 

If a subsequent order be given moving a working train beyond 
the limits first prescribed for it, the original order expires, and 
must not again be used. Conductors must not rely on the 
orders given by dispatchers cautioning other trains to look out 
for them, but must use great care in displaying the proper signals 
warning other trains. 

Form “J” annul ting an order - 

Order No.this date is annulled. 

When an order is recalled or annulled as a precaution against 
error, the substance of the order should also be repeated in ad¬ 
dition to the number. 


The following forms, as practiced on the Wabash railway, giv¬ 
ing second class trains the right to run ahead of, or against first 
class trains, when circumstances will permit, affords an easy and 
safe method of moving freight against or ahead of delayed pas¬ 
senger trains: 

The following form of order is given the first class trains: 

“Train No.engine.will run.min¬ 
utes behind schedule time from.to 


Upon this order the first class train will run not less than five 
minutes more behind its schedule time than the time specified in 
the order. 

The following form of order is given the second class trains: 

“Train No.. engine. can use. 

minutes on the time of train No.engine.to 

run from 


to 























TELEGRAPHY. 


289 

Upon this order the second class train can use the time of the 
first class train as indicated in the order, to make the designated 
or any intermediate station ahead of or against the first class 
train, but not ahead of its own schedule time. 


SECTION L. 

THE “ABSOLUTE BLOCK” SYSTEM OF TRAIN DISPATCHING AS USED 
ON THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILWAY. 

Of late years railway traffic has been so much developed that 
the necessity for some efficient system for the movement of 
trains, that will secure absolute safety from collision, has become 
apparent, hence the “block” system is thoroughly recognized, 
and is being rapidly developed, and adopted to some extent on 
many of the more important roads. In England, where a ma¬ 
jority of the lines are worked upon the block system, the in¬ 
spectors of the board of trade speak very conclusively in favor 
of the early completion of the absolute block system of working 
on all passenger railways, and that the system should be sup¬ 
plemented by some means of preventing mistakes of signal¬ 
men which so often occur and have led to very disastrous col¬ 
lisions. 

The permissive block system has hitherto prevailed on most 
French lines, but the French minister of public works now re¬ 
quires that the absolute block system, with automatic signalling 
apparatus, shall be as soon as possible established on all 
double lines. 

In this country the public press and public opinion in general 
are inclined to demand that laws should be passed in every 
State requiring the compulsory adoption of the “ block system” 
or some other effectual method of giving warning to an ap¬ 
proaching train of the presence of other trains on the track be- 



290 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


fore it, namely, “that, in the case of the double track roads, no 
train, or division of a train, shall be permitted to enter a section 
until it has been signaled that the preceding train has passed 
out at the other end, and the section, or block, is clear; and in 
the case of single track roads, that trains shall be prohibited 
from passing specified stations until the exact whereabouts and 
condition of the train preceding it, or to be met, is known, and 
instructions received to proceed. Such a law, with heavy penal¬ 
ties to be visited upon every person implicated in its violation, 
would put an end to most of railway disasters.” 

The principle of the absolute block systein. —“ The principle is 
simply that a railway is supposed to be divided into certain sec¬ 
tions, or blocks, of a given length, and no two trains, or engines, 
are allowed, or ought to be allowed, to be in one section at the 
same time.” 

The permissive block system. —Under certain circumstances, 
this system permits more than one train to occupy a block at 
the same time, but provides for notifying each train whether the 
block is occupied or not. 

Advantages of the absolute block system. —This system pos¬ 
sesses many advantages over any other, and, as used on the 
Pennsylvania railway, the London Underground road, the 
Southeastern, the London, Chatham & Dover, the Great West¬ 
ern, and other railways of England and railways of India, is 
claimed to be the only true and efficient one to secure safety 
from collision, so far as can be secured by human agency. 

On the Pennsylvania railway, east of Newark, over two hun¬ 
dred trains pass over the road daily, and the through express 
trains often leave Pittsburgh in two and even three sections, so 
great are the demands made upon them. 

On the London Underground road, trains in the morning and 
afternoon are run at two minute intervals. 

On the Southeastern railway the average number of trains at 



TELEGRAPHY. 


291 


high speeds through all sorts of crossings, points and junctions, 
is said to be nearly seven hundred a day. “In India the 
chief railroads are single track, and operated under this system, 
and there the operators and station staff are of a very inferior 
class, in point of intelligence and sense of responsibility. Yet 
butting collisions are of rare occurrence in that country.” 

The traffic of these roads is therefore conducted compara¬ 
tively with safety to the public when the system is thoroughly 
and efficiently carried out. When operated in connection with 
the interlocking signals and switches now being adopted, it 
would seem practically impossible for one passenger train to run 
into another. 

Objections to the absolute block system .—This system must not: 
be confounded with the permissive block system or the block 
system that has been abandoned on some English lines. 

An objection to the system, however, is urged by some, that 
it is cumbrous, that it would cause delays, that it would cause 
frequent blockades, and is therefore not adapted to heavy traffic, 
that the power of moving trains is placed in too many hands, 
and that responsibility is placed in too many localities, and the 
telegraph made a substitute for personal diligence and watchful¬ 
ness, the natural effect being to do away with foresight and the 
many precautions necessary on the part of practical employes 
upon the trains, and as an inevitable sequence such employes 
be made to deteriorate. “The fact that some other lines which 
are worked without the block system, and which have nearly or 
quite as much traffic as the Pennsylvania road, have fewer collis¬ 
ions, has been, and is, used as a very effective argument against 
the block system. That it is conclusive cannot be admitted, 
but it indicates that there is in such cases something wrong 
about the application or method of working it on the Pennsyl¬ 
vania road,” which may, in a measure, be accounted for by the 
fact, that the freight traffic is worked on the permissive block 
system, which permits of several freight trains between two 


292 COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

signal stations at a time; or such accidents may be caused by 
mistakes of signal-men or inefficient and poorly paid employes, 
as it is shown by statistics that the most prolific of all causes 
which produce serious accidents is negligence and mistakes. 
“ It is no excuse for accidents, however, to say that they were 
caused by the neglect of duty by some employe. That must 
be expected. The question which a manager ought to answer 
is whether he could have guarded against the consequences of 
such negligence.” However, “there has been opportunity 
enough for the public to learn what good railroad management 
really implies. It is proved better by results than by assertion.” 
The absolute block system has been thoroughly tested, and 
when thoroughly and efficiently carried out is acknowledged a 
success by managers who have adopted it. 

Expense .—The only valid objection that can be raised against 
the “block” system is its expense, as it is costly to provide and 
costly to work. Such a system may be expensive, and yet may 
be more economical than a less perfect and less expensive one. 
Surely the system which is most prompt to detect and remedy 
errors is the safest and most economical to put into the hands of 
experienced, inexperienced, or unskillful operators. Although 
costly to provide, the “absolute block sytem” and interlocking 
signals and switches will in time doubtless be gradually introduced 
and adopted on all important roads, especially on the most 
crowded and dangerous sections. 

Pennsylvania railway block signal stations. —At the present 
time there are seventy signal stations between Jersey City and 
Philadelphia, ten of them being east of Newark, where the trains 
are the most frequent. At no place on the road does a train run 
four miles without passing one of these stations. At each one 
there is a telegraph operator, with three telegraphic instruments, 
one being used simply for sending general messages; another 
instrument sends none but signal messages to Jersey City, and 
the third is connected with only three stations, and is for local 


Fig. 21.— BLOCK SIGNAL STATION, PENNSYLVANIA RAILWAY. 


TELEGRAPHY. 293 

purposes. Fig. 21 gives a good illustration of the “block signal 
stations.” 









































































































































































































2 94 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


The signal apparatus. —Over the desk upon which the 
instruments are placed hangs a rope, which runs through the 
roof of the station, connecting with a wire which in turn is 
fastened to a glass slide in a square box either above or at the 
side of the track. Fastened to this slide is a piece of red flannel. 
There is also a slide arranged with green flannel. In the back 
part of the box there is a white painted board, in the middle of 
which is a common lamp, for use at night. When there is no 
train in sight the red slide is pulled down, showing a red, circular 
surface, ten feet above the ground, about twenty inches in 
diameter, indicating “danger;” when the slide is raised a white 
disc is shown, indicating “alb clear.” The red signal must be 
held up by hand, and never secured when raised. 

The use of the green signal .—The green signal is used prin¬ 
cipally to signify that the last train which passed was a freight 
train and has not yet reached the next station. The use of the 
green signal advises the engineer to use caution until he has 
seen a station displaying a white signal. 

Distinct circuit .—The system requires a distinct circuit from 
station to station, and the consta?it attentio?i of the operators to 
their respective duties. 

Elastic ..—This system is, so to speak, elastic ; that is, it may 
be made to suit different degrees of traffic, principally by regu¬ 
lating the distances between telegraph stations. Where the 
trains run close together, the telegraph stations must be close 
together ; where the trains are few, the telegraph stations may 
be far apart. For instance, the system can be worked perfectly 
where every second stopping place is a telegraph office, in which 
case, trains, when necessary, can be given orders to meet and 
pass at the intermediate station or siding. Or the system can 
be worked to advantage on the most crowded and dangerous 
sections of a road only. 

Operation of the absolute block system .—The system is 


TELEGRAPHY. 


295 


worked as follows: No train is allowed to leave one signal sta¬ 
tion until that signal station has asked leave from the signal sta¬ 
tion in advance, and such second signal station has replied in 
the affirmative; and when the train has been allowed to leave, 
the sending station shall inform the receiving station that the 
train has left, and the receiving station then is required to ac¬ 
knowledge that he has been so informed. As the train ap¬ 
proaches, if the “ block ” ahead be clear, the operator pulls the 
rope above his head, raising the red slide, showing the white 
surface. He is compelled to hold the signal up until the train 
has passed and displayed two “ markers ” or green flags on the 
rear car. He then lets the red slide fall, and “calls” the opera¬ 
tor in the station ahead. Having received an answer, he sends 
the schedule number of the train, the time it passed his office, 
and states that the green flags were all right. 

To be sure he has made no mistake, the receiving operator 
repeats the message and receives an answer from the operator 
who sent it before he allows the train to pass his station. Be¬ 
sides warning the station ahead of the approach of the train, a 
similar record of every train is forwarded immediately to the 
train dispatcher’s office in Jersey City, so that the exact position 
of every train on the whole road is known at any minute of the 
day or night. After one passenger train has passed a station no 
other passenger train can pass it until the operator has received 
the message from the operator ahead that the track is clear up 
to that point. So long as the red appears in the target it is 
evidence that the preceding train is still on that section, and a 
protracted delay shows that it has stopped or that there is some¬ 
thing wrong, and that the waiting train must hold until it gets 
the word to go ahead. 

The “ markers ”—It has happened that a train occasionally 
breaks in two, which makes necessary the rule of reporting that 
the “ markers ” are seen. At night the system is the same as in 
the daytime, with the exception that the lamp in the box is 


296 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


lighted and red lanterns instead of the green flags are used as 
“ markers.” 

Orders unifor?n. —A great advantage is that the train orders 
and messages are uniform; in transmitting them over the wire, 
they can be expressed in formulae or signs, all except the number 
or description of the train, so that the actual transmission of 
messages occupies but a short time, and there is no chance of 
misunderstanding. 

Provision against errors. —The absolute block system provides 
for a repetition of messages between the two stations regarding 
each train, and that the train shall not pass until those messages 
are complete, and on a double track not until the interval is 
clear, so that, if one operator is negligent, delay will result to the 
train, which is certain to bring the party in fault prominently for¬ 
ward. Again, if one of the operators makes a mistake regarding 
the train, there is almost a certainty of its being rectified immedi¬ 
ately ; that is, as great a certainty as is possible where human 
agents are employed. 

Provision against drowsiness on the part of night operators . 
—The system is so thorough that trains are even protected 
against drowsiness on the part of the operators. It checks the 
danger of a man while asleep allowing a train to pass by, for 
although he may fall asleep and fail to know that there is a train 
approaching, the red signal which is always displayed unless 
raised by the operator, will stop the train, and the cause of the 
detention must be ascertained. If an operator should fail to 
report the fact that a train had left his station, it is stopped by 
the next operator, and the reasons for his not reporting are asked. 
If no answer is obtained, the central office is informed. 

Freight trains. —Freight trains are regulated by cautionary 
signals, and the train dispatcher in the general office always knows 
precisely where every train is. Freight trains are not usually 
run on schedule time, but are allowed to follow each other at 


TELEGRAPHY. 


297 


short intervals, depending wholly on the signals displayed; in 
this way several freight trains may be between two signal stations 
at a time, and if the last one has passed the first of the two 
stations some minutes previously, the operator stops an approach¬ 
ing passenger train, states the facts to the engineer, and then 
raises the green signal, and allows him to proceed; but no other 
passenger train can go past the station until all the preceding 
trains, including the passenger, has been reported from the next 
station. This is an imperative rule, and can only be suspended 
by an order from the central office in Jersey City, which may 
have some information sufficient to order the trains to proceed. 

Origin of the “ block signal system .”—The “ block signal sys¬ 
tem” was first originated in the mechanical brain of Mr. Robert 
Stewart, formerly superintendent of telegraph of the Camden 
& Amboy railroad, but later of the Pennsylvania. He first saw 
the necessity of some uniform code of signals, and he was first 
to think of utilizing the electric telegraph for this purpose. His 
original system has been since improved upon, until now it is 
acknowledged as the safest, surest and swiftest system under 
which trains can be run, and its importance has heen admitted 
by the managers of the New York Central and other important 
roads, which have in a measure adopted the plan. 


298 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 




PART SIXTH. 


KAILIMY STACIOn $6RYI(£G. 


An authority on railway matters says “ that an employe in the 
railway service cannot become e?itirely fa??iiliar with the rules 
and regulations governing his duties except by acquiring knowl¬ 
edge of the duties of others.” Therefore one who does this in¬ 
telligently and becomes familiar with the different duties con¬ 
nected with the station service prepares and recommends himself 
for advancement. 


SECTION LI. 

THE MANAGEMENT OF RAILWAY STATIONS. 

The agent .—The business of a railway station is placed in 
charge of a “station agent,” who is under the immediate direc¬ 
tion of the superintendent. The agent is required to give satis¬ 
factory bonds for faithful service and safe keeping of the com¬ 
pany’s property and money, the bonds varying according to 
the importance of the station. Agents are required to strictly ob¬ 
serve the rules and regulations of the company governing the 
business, and to see that employes at the station are at their 





TELEGRAPHY. 


2 99 


respective posts, attending their duties properly, and that all 
treat the public with courtesy. No agent can conduct the busi¬ 
ness of a station satisfactorily, if he neglects to pay close atten¬ 
tion to the rules adopted for his guidance. “If instructions are 
well read and observed ,” agents will have fewer errors to cor¬ 
rect, and many causes for complaint be altogether removed. 
Therefore, all orders and instructions issued by the company 
should be carefully read , observed, and filed for future reference. 

Authority of agents. —They have control of the station houses, 
sidings and other property of the company, and are charged 
with the general oversight of same, and employes connected 
therewith. Operators must respect their authority when it does 
not conflict with or interfere with their duties as operators. 

Authority at large stations. —There is an exception at large 
points where the different departments are given in charge of, 
and controlled separately, as “ticket agent,” “freight agent,” 
“baggage master,” and “yard master.” These, however, are 
all, more or less, under the charge or superintendency of the sta¬ 
tion agent, the authority varying on different roads. 

Yard ?nasters. —They are under the direction of the superin¬ 
tendent, and have charge of the yard and side tracks at stations 
where trains are made up, the movement of trains therein and 
of the yard force employed at these points. However, in the 
absence of a yard master the duties of that official are performed 
by the agent. 

Small stations. —In addition to other duties the agent acts as 
telegraph operator, express agent, baggage master, etc., etc., and 
it is often the case has more to look after than any one man 
should, and do justice to all. 

Absent from duty. —Agents are not allowed to absent them¬ 
selves from duty or leave their stations in charge of others, with¬ 
out special permission from the superintendent. 


3 °° 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Classification of station business .—The business of a railway 
station, under the supervision of the station agent, may be 
divided into four separate departments, viz : “ freight,” “ pas¬ 
senger or ticket,” “ telegraph ” and “ baggage.” “ Express v may 
be added on some roads, and at small stations on most roads 
the station agent acts as agent for the express company. 


SECTION LII. 

FREIGHT DEPARTMENT. 

Freight forwarded. —Station agents must receive, weigh, and 
give the proper receipt for all goods in good shipping order 
plainly marked, offered for transportation, except such articles 
as are prohibited by the rules of the company. In receipting 
for cars loaded by shippers the receipt must read “ shipper’s 
count,” “ more or less,” except where the correct count, etc., is 
known by the agent. “ Releases for household goods and for 
freight of a similar character must be taken in duplicate.” 

Loading and unloading freight. —Each lot of freight belonging 
to different parties must be kept separate. “ If goods are loaded 
in a car for more than one station, the goods to be unloaded 
first must be put into the car last, and the* freight for each sta¬ 
tion kept by itself.” 

Live stock. —Agents must require shippers of live stock to sign 
the “stock contract” issued by the company. 

Shipping bill. —When freight is offered for transportation, a 
shipping bill, giving written shipping directions, must be taken, 
which should be signed by the consigner or his representative 
who delivers the freight at the depot, and it is the duty of the 
agent or tally man who receives the freight to tally same, as de¬ 
livered, checking each item on shipping bill, and to sign his 
name under the check marks made by him, after making the 



TELEGRAPHY. 


3 °i 


notation “Tallied wlmi received .” Freight received from con¬ 
necting lines is treated in the same manner. 

Way-bills .—The way-bill is a blank form designed to insert a 
detailed record of every consignment of freight. On all freight 
forwarded from a station way-bills must be made out and de¬ 
livered to the conductor of the train taking the same (whose 
name must be endorsed thereon). Separate way-bills must in 
all cases be made for the contents of each car, and also for goods 
destined to different stations. 

Any special conditions applicable to freight must be noted on 
the way-bill. In way-billing perishable property, the words 
“perishable freight” must be noted in red ink on the outside. 

Way-bills—how made out .—They must bear the car initials, 
car number, way-bill number, the date when forwarded, the name 
of the station forwarding and to be delivered at, the name of 
the consigner and consignee, the rate charged, and a full descrip¬ 
tion of all articles shipped, and all other particulars, all of which 
must be entered in the freight forwarded book, and the con¬ 
ductors must, in all cases , enter their names in the proper place 
on all way-bills for freight hauled in their trains. 

Copies of way-bills .—At all principal stations way-bills are 
written with copying ink, and an impression of them taken on 
tissue sheets, but at smaller stations they are usually rewritten in 
a record book. As a rule duplicate copies must also be for¬ 
warded daily to the proper official at the general office. 

Numbering way-bills .—They must be regularly numbered, 
commencing with No. i, the first of each month. 

Freight received .—On all freight received at a station from 
other stations way-bills are delivered with same, and the agent 
is required to critically examine them to -ascertain if all footings, 
etc., are correct. 

Personally responsible—Station agents are held personally re¬ 
sponsible for the safe keeping and proper delivery of all goods 
or property received by them, and for charges due thereon. 


302 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Duty to notify consigners .—When freight arrives at a sta¬ 
tion the agent must notify the consignee by postal card or 
otherwise, giving amount of charges. 

Storage. —If goods are not taken away after five days notice, 
* storage is charged. 

Charges. —Before delivering any goods, the agent must make 
a bill of the freight, and charges thereon, and upon delivery of 
the articles to the consignee, collect the amount of said bills, 
which he must receipt when paid. No goods are allowed to be 
taken away until all freight and charges due thereon are paid. 
No agent is allowed to give credit. 

Receipt for delivery .—Agents are not allowed in any case to 
deliver goods without taking a receipt for the same in the receipt 
book provided for that purpose. The receipt of a drayman or 
teamster will not answer, unless he produces a written order from 
the consignee. 

Unclaimed freight .—On the last day of each month, a de¬ 
tailed report must be made out of all unclaimed freight, and 
forwarded to the general freight agent. 


SECTION LIII. 

PASSENGER OR TICKET DEPARTMENT. 

Tickets .—Station agents have charge of the sale of tickets at 
their stations (except at larger points, where a ticket agent is 
appointed), and are required to furnish all necessary facilities to 
passengers for the purchase of tickets, having their office open 
at least half an hour prior to the departure of each train carry¬ 
ing passengers between the hours of 6 a. m. and io p. m., except 
in case of express arrangements to the contrary with the super¬ 
intendent. 

Classification of tickets. —Tickets may be classed as follows: 



TELEGRAPHY. 


303 


“First-class,” “second-class,” “local” or “coupon,” “half,” “com¬ 
mutation,” “excursion,” “clergy,” and “special tickets.” 

Supply of tickets .—Agents are required to keep on hand a suffi¬ 
cient supply of tickets to cover all emergencies, and use every 
exertion to induce passengers to procure tickets before entering 
the cars, and must give passengers all possible information in 
regard to time of train connections with other roads, etc. Care 
must be observed not to sell tickets to stations by any train that 
does not stop at such station as per time table, but in case of 
application for tickets to such way stations, they will inform pas¬ 
sengers of the proper train to take. 

Plumber .—Tickets are numbered consecutively, and must be 
sold in regular order, commencing with the lowest number. 

Dating tickets .—Every ticket, local or coupon, sold, must be 
plainly stamped on the back, with the date of sale; always re¬ 
ceive the money for a ticket before dating it. 

Agents should have a regular time in the day for changing 
date in stamps. If from any cause a ticket should not be taken 
after being stamped, and it is necessary to sell it over again, it 
must be restamped on the day on which the ticket is sold. 
When the ribbon of the dating machine does not ink readily 
or has been run through, change the surface so as to bring the 
underside on top, and when it becomes useless, order another, 
returning the old one when the new one is received. 

Stop over checks.— They are not given on “local tickets.” 

Ticket case .—All agents who sell tickets are furnished with 
a ticket cas£ arranged expressly for tickets. 

Proper arrange?ne?it of tickets .—The proper way to have tickets 
arranged for selling and reporting, is to arrange them in the 
order in which the stations are printed ; and to avoid labor in 
going over the whole of the tickets, to examine each ticket 
each day, have the lowest ticket of every station drawn out suf¬ 
ficiently to see the number. This should be done before com- 


3°4 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


mencing to sell. When you sell a ticket do not draw the next 
one unless to sell it, but leave it out of sight. When making 
your report you can then at a glance see when tickets have been 
sold by none being drawn out. Then partly draw out the ticket 
at every station, take down the numbers in the closing number 
column on your report for that day, leaving every number ex¬ 
posed as you pass along. You will then have the closing num¬ 
ber for that day by having your tickets thus arranged, and ob¬ 
serving when no tickets are drawn out. You can, with very 
little trouble, arrive at the number sold, and your case will at all 
times be ready to commence sales for the next day. 

Agents accountable .—Agents are obliged to pay for all tickets 
lost, misplaced, or stolen, unless it can be clearly shown that the 
loss was not the result of want of care on the agents’ part. 

[Telegraph Department—See Part Fifth.] 


SECTION LIV. 

BAGGAGE DEPARTMENT. 

Baggage .—The wearing apparel, money, and such other arti¬ 
cles as are carried for the travelers’ use or instruction are baggage, 
and not articles of trade or for pecuniary profit. “It is not, 
however, the duty of the passenger to inform the company of 
the contents of his trunk, unless inquiry be made; but if asked 
by the proper official he is bound to answer truly.” 

Amount of baggage allotted, free .—Many railways have regula¬ 
tions as to the limit in weight, others as to the limit in value, 
and some have both. Usually no more than 150 pounds of per¬ 
sonal baggage is checked free for any ordinary passenger on a 
full ticket, nor more than 75 pounds of baggage on a half ticket; 
and all weight in excess of this amount is charged for at the 
regular excess baggage tariff rates. No piece of baggage weigh¬ 
ing over 250 pounds is accepted for transportation as baggage. 



TELEGRAPHY. 


3°5 


Charge of baggage .—Station agents or baggage masters have 
charge of all baggage received from passengers (as soon as 
checked), or delivered to them by train at their respective sta¬ 
tions, and must not allow any part of such baggage to be 
removed without the duplicate check being produced, which 
must correspond in number and quality of check to the one on 
piece of baggage claimed. The company is liable for injury to 
baggage until its safe delivery to the owner, but if left in the 
baggage-room over twenty-four hours, is subject to storage 
charges. 

Baggage masters ’ duties .—Baggage masters must require pass¬ 
engers to show their tickets before checking their baggage, and 
check same and deliver to the baggage master on board the train, 
and receive from him all baggage to be left at their stations, 
assist in delivering it to the owners, and keep a record of all 
baggage received and delivered by them, showing the number of 
check, date, and number of train. On the arrival of passenger 
trains at a station, baggage masters are expected to give their 
attention to the baggage car first, and transact the business 
necessary to be done with the baggage man before attending to 
any other, and, in addition to taking charge of baggage, is re¬ 
quired to receive, and take charge of, and promptly forward 
letters and packages on company’s service. 

Daily reports of baggage .—Station agents or baggage masters 
are required to report daily in detail to the general baggage agent, 
accompanying their statements with the way-bills or receipts 
taken from the train baggage masters. 


SECTION LV. 

RAILWAY STATION ACCOUNTS. 

Books. —Agents are required to enter all accounts of the busi¬ 
ness at their station in books expressly arranged and designed 



306 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


for the purpose, which must be written up daily in a plain and leg¬ 
ible style, and the accounts in the freight and ticket departments 
kept entirely separate. 

Principal books required. —Cash book, freight books, “ freight 
forwarded ” and “ freight received, ” and passenger book. 

The cash book, debtor side. —The left hand page, or debtor 
side, must show in detail the source from which the cash is 
received. If from freight, it must show the date received, and 
from whom, date and number of way-bill, folio of freight book, 
either forwarded or received. If from storage, interest, demurr¬ 
age, switching, or back fees, it must show the date and from 
whom received. 

The cash book, credit side .—The right hand page, or credit 
side, must show the disposition made of the money, the 
amount sent to the treasurer on account of freight, etc., the 
amount on account of passengers, and the amount paid for 
charges, if any. Should the cash book show a balance, it should 
always equal the amount of cash on hand. 

Freight books , freight forwarded book. —A full account of all 
freight forwarded must be entered in detail in this book, and 
must show the page of the cash book on which each consign¬ 
ment of freight is entered. 

Freight received book. —The detailed account of all freight re¬ 
ceived must be entered in this book, and must also show the 
page of the cash book on which each consignment of freight is 
entered. 

Passenger, or ticket sales book .—Each day’s sales of tickets, 
both local and coupon, must be entered and kept separate in 
this book. 

Blanks. —In conducting the business of a railway station nu- 
merous blanks furnished by the railway company, are required 
to be filled out by the agent, as per instructions usually given on 
each. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


307 

Reports. All reports and business of a station are made out 
and done in the name of the agent. Reports must be made 
out weekly, semi-monthly, and monthly, on the proper blanks 
provided for the purpose, and forwarded promptly to the proper 
official. On all of these blanks full instructions are given and 
their observance is strictly required. 

Cash .—Agents are required to remit daily to the treasurer of 
the railway company all money received by them from all 
sources on account of the railway company, deducting only the 
amount paid for back charges on freight forwarded, and suffi¬ 
cient change to transact business. 

Remittances how sent .—All remittances must be promptly 
sent by express. 

Conforming to official orders .—Any person not willing to con¬ 
form cheerfully and promptly to such orders as may be found 
necessary for the proper dispatch of business on a railway is not 
retained in its service. 


SECTION LVI. 

EXPRESS BUSINESS—GENERAL INFORMATION. 

Express business, has, by the necessities of commerce and 
usage, become known as a branch of the carrying trade entirely 
different from the transportation of the large mass of freight 
usually carried on steamers ■ and railroads. The object of 
this express business is to carry small and valuable pack¬ 
ages rapidly, in such a manner as not to subject them to the 
loss and damage which, to a greater or less degree, attend the 
transportation of heavy, bulky articles. It has become law and 
usage, and is one of the necessities of this business, that these 
packages be in the immediate care of a messenger or agent. 
When station agents act as express agents the business is con¬ 
ducted under, and subject to, the rules and regulations of the 



3°8 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


express company, except on roads which conduct their own ex¬ 
press business; and is eminently one of detail, requiring of all 
persons engaged in it, system, accuracy, punctuality, watchful¬ 
ness and urbanity. Hence strict observance of the rules and 
instructions governing the employes of an express company are 
absolutely necessary to insure, so far as practicable, uniformity 
in all departments. An idea of how the express business is con¬ 
ducted may be gained from the following extracts, carefully 
selected from the rules and instructions governing the service of 
the American Express Company, whose routes cover twenty 
States and the Canadas on, 28,000 miles of railroad, with 4,000 
agencies—including nearly every prominent northern city from 
the extreme east to the far west—all under a uniform system of 
management. 

Offices .—Express offices or agencies are designated as “reg¬ 
ular” and “non-reporting” offices. 

Regular offices .—The more important offices, or those named 
in the key to tariff without a (*) before them, to which express 
matter is way-billed direct. 

Non-reporting offices .—Offices named in the key to tariff with 
a (*) before them. At such offices the agent is required to set¬ 
tle with the messenger on receipt and delivery of express mat¬ 
ter. A duplicate way-bill must be delivered to the messenger on 
the train, with all matter forwarded, and a receipt taken; if 
charges are prepaid, the amount must be paid to the messenger 
when the articles are delivered to him, and noted on “out book” 
and on the packages. On receipt of packages or other matter 
from a messenger, the charges on same must be advanced to 
him, and the proper entries be at once make in the “record of 
business received.” However, in regard to the business, general¬ 
ly non-reporting agents are governed by the general rules. 

Afanageme?it .—The business and employes of the express 
company in a city or town are placed under the management and 



TELEGRAPHY. 


309 


control of an agent, who is subject to the general instructions of 
the superintendent. Employes are held responsible for any loss 
occasioned by their own carelessness or inattention, and as no 
plea of ignorance is accepted as an excuse for mistakes in trans¬ 
acting any part of the business, all instructions issued, and those 
given in the general tariff book and classification card should 
be carefully studied. Every precaution must be taken for the 
safety and protection of money and valuables , hence agents are 
required to make themselves thoroughly familiar with instruc¬ 
tions relative to same. 

The route agent .—The principal duty of route agents acting 
under the direction of the superintendents of divisions to which 
they are appointed is to see, if possible, each and all agents and 
messengers under their charge daily , giving them such instruc¬ 
tions and assistance as they may require. 

New agents or 7 ?iesse?igers .—When such are appointed it is the 
duty of the route agent to see that proper instructions are given 
them, and for this purpose will remain at the office or with the 
messenger on the train, as the case may be, until such time as 
they are competent to attend to their duties. 

Opening new offices .—The route agent is required to give in¬ 
structions as much as possible in writing, by making three or 
four fictitious way-bills, copying them on “ in trip book ” and 
entering one week’s business on “out trip book” including 
packages with advanced charges, prepaid, etc., etc., and any 
other instructions required in the management of an office. 

Classification of express business .—The business may be classi¬ 
fied as follows: The forwarding, in charge of special messen¬ 
gers, by fast trains, money and valuables, freight, live stock, 
corpse, and free matter; the collection business, including notes, 
drafts, accounts, bills of lading and collections with goods or C. O. 
D.’s; telegraph transfers of money ; the money order system, 
and the order and commission business. 


3 IQ 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Way-bills .—All shipments must be properly way-billed ac¬ 
cording to directions, direct to regular offices or non-reporting 
offices as per billing directions in key to tariff. The price for 
each entry must be made on way-bill according to the tariff fur¬ 
nished every office unless it is “free” or “ s. c.” (service con¬ 
tract) package. The rate per ioo pounds for freight or per 
$1,000 for currency, to point which bill is made must be entered 
on every way-bill forwarded. 

Numbering way-bills .—All way-bills issued on any one day 
must bear the same number, and when more than one bill is 
made to the same office on the same day, the time of departure 
a. m. or p. m. must be entered on each and so abstracted. On 
the ist of January each year the numbering of way-bills must 
be commenced with number one (i) and thereafter advanced 
one number for each day on which one or more way-bills are 
forwarded. 

Record .—A proper record of all business transacted must be 
entered in the prescribed books furnished by the company. 

Transfer of property from one employe to another .—In all cases 
where property is transferred from the custody of one employe 
to that of another, each package must at the time if practicable 
be compared with and checked on the way-bills, delivery book, 
or other list on which they may be entered, and receipts must 
be given and taken for all way-bills transferred. 

Secrecy .—The business of the company and the transactions 
of its customers through its offices must be strictly confidential, 
and books, bills, etc,, are not open for public inspection. Infor¬ 
mation concerning the amount of money received or forwarded, 
or in relation to any matter of business entrusted to the com¬ 
pany must not be given to anyone. Secrecy is the main guard 
and protection of all express business. 

Tariff .—A general tariff is furnished at each office and must 
not be varied from, except by instructions from assistant general 
superintendent or the tariff department. When offices are opened 


TELEGRAPHY. 


311 

and closed agents are promptly notified of same, and must make 
the proper changes in list of offices and key to tariff, filing the 
notice for future reference. 

Pistols .—Pistols or revolvers are furnished on all important 
routes, at transfer points, to offices distant from the station, and 
also to offices where trains are to be met after dark. Each 
pistol is furnished with a belt, and the agent, messenger, or 
other representative of the company having money and valua¬ 
bles in charge, must, while on duty, wear the same outside of 
all his clothing where it can be reached the moment required. 

Telegrams .—The telegraph is only permitted to be made use 
of when necessary to protect the interests of the express com¬ 
pany, and never at the company’s expense when letters will 
suffice. 


SECTION LVII. 

FORWARDING OF EXPRESS MATTER—MONEY AND VALUABLES. 

Receipt .—A receipt in ink must be given for every money 
package received, and the package locked up in the safe until 
checked to other parties. 

Marking and addressing .—The exact amount of money con¬ 
tained in packages must be plainly marked on them, and no 
money package must be receipted for until after it is sealed, nor 
must the person receipting for it write the address on it unless 
the shipper thereafter writes his own name on the envelope. 

Stitching and sealing money packages .—Pass the string through 
the centre of the envelope, then around the right hand end, and 
tie in such manner that the knot will come under the end seal. 
The above, however, does not apply to large packages (such as 
bank packages) properly put up in wrapping paper, well tied and 
securely sealed. 

Coin .—Coin in gold or silver pieces exceeding $10, must not 



312 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


be forwarded in envelopes, but enclosed in cloth bags securely 
stitched and sealed as follows: Wind the neck of the bag tight, 
then pass the twine two or three times through the bag with a 
needle; tie and seal on the knot, and also seal the ends of the 
twine on the side of the bag, or on the back of the marking tag. 
However, gold and silver must not be taken in bags in amounts 
over $5,000 gold or $500 silver. Over these amounts it must 
be packed in boxes strapped with iron, top and bottom screwed, 
and plainly sealed with shippers seal, and weight of same marked 
upon the outside of the package, together with the amount en¬ 
closed, and entered upon the way-bill. 

FREIGHT. 

Receipt .—A receipt in ink must be given on the prescribed 
form for all packages of every description to be forwarded. 
Always ask shipper to state the value, and when given (if it ex¬ 
ceeds the limit of value fixed by the company’s receipts, viz.: 
$50), enter it on the receipt; mark it on the package, and enter 
the same on way-bill. If shipper refuse to give the value, enter 
on receipt, “Value asked and not given.” Receipts, however, 
must never be given for articles to be forwarded without first 
seeing them and examining marks, etc. 

Address .—Goods m-ust have but one address. The street and 
number of consignees must be given when possible. All old 
marks should be effectually erased. Cards or tags should not 
be used for marking shipments, when pen or brush and ink can 
be applied. 

Charges .—When charges are prepaid the person receiving the 
money must mark the package accordingly, signing his name or 
initials, and stating whether paid through to destination or only 
part of the distance, entering same on way-bill. Perishable 
matter must always be prepaid or guaranteed, and goods evi¬ 
dently not worth the transportation are refused unless the freight 
is prepaid or guaranteed. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


313 

Labelled. —Each package of every shipment must bear the 
label of the office from which it is forwarded. Packages con¬ 
taining liquid or glass are only received at owner’s risk. 

Cording and sealing. —Agents are required, at time of ship¬ 
ment, and, if possible, in presence of shipper, to cord and seal 
all trunks, valises, and hand-bags, using for the purpose, when 
not provided with stamps for attaching lead seals, the ordinary 
cord and marking tags supplied by the company. 

Extra care. —Boxes and other packages marked “ this side 
up,” “ keep dry,” “ handle with care,” or with any precautionary 
request whatever, must be handled and disposed of accordingly. 

Specified time of delivery .—Agents are not permitted to con¬ 
tract or receipt to deliver articles in a specified time, nor to de¬ 
liver goods beyond the termination of the company’s express 
routes. The company can only agree to hand them over to 
other companies and take their receipt. 

Live stock. —All live stock must be receipted for at owner’s 
risk, and charges be prepaid or guaranteed, and releases must 
be signed by shipper of valuable animals. 

Corpses. —Corpses must in all cases be accompanied by a 
physician’s certificate (in duplicate) of the cause of death, etc., 
which must be pasted on the box containing the corpse and the 
duplicate attached to the way-bill. 

Free matter. —No business is carried free unless under the 
company’s franks, except that of railroad and transportation com¬ 
panies with which the express company are under contracts to 
carry supplies remittances, etc., without charge. 

COLLECTION BUSINESS. 

Paper for collection, receipt. —The company’s collection receipt 
must always be given for paper which is received, only from 
known and responsible persons, to be forwarded for collection. 
The paper must be enclosed in the proper collection envelope, 
entering on same the name and address of the party from whom 


314 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


received and of whom to be collected. All such business must 
be forwarded and collections made subject to the regulations of 
the company and the printed and special written instructions on 
the collection envelopes. 

Collections with goods, or C. O. Us. —When bills are taken to 
be collected on delivery of goods accompanying same, they 
must be enclosed in the printed C. O. D. envelope for the pur¬ 
pose and the goods marked C. O. D., with the amount to be 
collected. Any special instructions given by shipper must at 
same time be written on the envelope. When return charges 
are to be collected on C. O. D.’s, the proper amount to be col¬ 
lected must be entered by shipping office on the invoice and in 
the place left for “return charges” on the envelope. The full 
amount to be collected should also be marked on the goods 
and entered on the way-bill. Freight charges must be prepaid 
or guaranteed on C. O. D. goods if they are of a kind and value 
that would not be sure to sell for double the express charges. 

ORDER AND COMMISSION BUSINESS. 

Orders for goods or purchases. —In all large cities where the 
express company have offices, orders for goods or purchases of 
any kind may be made through the express company without 
charge, except for the transportation of the goods purchased. 
Agents are required to give particular attention to soliciting and 
filling orders and attending to other commissions that may be 
entrusted to the company. For responsible parties the company 
will advance the purchase money for orders up to the amount 
of $5, returning the goods subject to “expense” for the cost of 
same : when the amount exceeds $5 the money should accom¬ 
pany the order, or the cost of goods can be collected on deliv¬ 
ery (C. O. D.) subject in either case to the company’s usual 
money tariff. Order blanks to be filled out by the customer and 
a special envelope is provided for such business. 

Telegraph transfers of money. —Great care must be exercised 


TELEGRAPHY. 


315 


in sending and paying money orders by telegraph. Such orders 
must be repeated back to agents sending them (not to telegraph 
operators merely), and agents reply as to correctness of message 
waited for, before payment. Agents must sign their full name, 
as agent of the company, the same as they would sign an im¬ 
portant official document. The expense of telegraphic service 
must be charged and paid for in addition to the charges for ex¬ 
press service. Messages directing such payments must be de¬ 
livered at the telegraph office by the agent himself, or by an em¬ 
ploye of the company known to be such by the telegraph 
company. When the payee is unknown identification must in 
all cases be required. 

Money order service .—A money order system has been inaug¬ 
urated by the American Express company, the details of which 
are very simple, and considered the cheapest, safest, and most 
convenient arrangement by which a remittance of small sums of 
money, from $1 to $10, may be sent to nearly every part of the 
Union. These orders are issued at any of the offices of the 
company, but are only made payable at the more important cities 
and towns. 

Rates .—The rates are five cents for amounts from $1 to $5, 
and eight cents for amounts from $5 to $10, which is cheaper 
than the postal money order rates. 

Abstracts .—Abstracts must be rendered to the general ac¬ 
counting office weekly, or oftener, when so instructed, and must 
show the number, date, and destination of each way-bill issued, 
and also the total footing of each column on same, viz: 
“charges advanced,” “our charges,” “collect,” and “prepaid 
charges,” for the time represented on the abstract. The last ab¬ 
stract in each month must end with the last day of the month, 
thus keeping the business of each month separate. 

Messengers' abstract .—Agents are required to return and set¬ 
tle messenger’s abstracts in the same manner as their own, enter- 


3 l6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


ing name of messenger, and route on which he runs, before the 
number. 


SECTION LVIII. 

DELIVERY OF EXPRESS MATTER. 

Receipts. —In all cases freight charges and C. O. D.’s must be 
paid on delivery of shipment, and receipts taken for all articles 
delivered, giving date of delivery. Receipts for money packages 
must, in every instance, be written with pen and ink. 

Unknown consignees. —When the consignee of a valuable 
package is unknown, he must be identified by some responsible 
person, and the person identifying must sign, with party receiv¬ 
ing, upon the receipt book. No property, however valueless it 
apparently may be, should be delivered to a stranger without 
some reasonable evidence that the party claiming it is entitled to 
receive it. 

“ C. O. D.” goods. —Goods marked C. O. D. must only be 
delivered, or suffered to go out of the express company’s posses¬ 
sion on payment of full amount of the bill which accompanies 
them, except on order from shipper, endorsed by agent at ship¬ 
ping office, and forwarded by express, directing the delivery of 
goods without collecting bill, or by a permit for partial payment. 
When consignees of C. O. D. goods cannot be found, or refuse 
for any reason to receive and pay for the property, post office 
notices must be immediately mailed to both consignee and ship¬ 
per. If C. O. D. goods cannot be delivered within 30 days 
after shipper has been notified, and no instructions are received 
as to their disposal, they must be returned in accordance with the 
provisions of the receipt given for the shipment, that the shipper 
pay charges for transportation both ways. 

C. O. I)is transfer to other co? 7 ipanies .—Agents at transfer 
offices are required to re-envelope all collections transferred to 



TELEGRAPHY. 


317 


other companies, retaining the original envelope in their posses¬ 
sion until the return of the collection. In filling out the 
envelope, it must be made in favor of their own company at the 
transfer office, and great care must be taken to enter thereon all 
special or general instructions given on original. 

Post-office notices .—Every exertion should be made to deliver 
express matter and not allow it to accumulate. Whenever ex¬ 
press matter cannot be immediately delivered, a notice to con¬ 
signee must be made out and deposited in the post-office on the 
same day. Such notices must in all cases be addressed the 
same as the shipment. The date of mailing such notices must 
be entered on the “in trip book” or “record of packages on 
hand,” opposite the entry of shipment. In case of failure 
to find consignees by the usual post-office notices or inquiries of 
persons likely to be acquainted with the inhabitants of the 
place, or if property is refused, the facts should be communi¬ 
cated to the office from which the goods were received, giving 
name of shipper, initials or other marks on goods so as to ena¬ 
ble that office to get instructions. 

Perishable goods .—When such goods are refused by consignee 
or are not called for, unless other instructions accompany them, 
they should be at once disposed of to the best advantage, and 
an account of sales, with net proceeds, returned to the shipper, 
addressed to the office from which goods were received. In 
case goods do not sell for enough to cover the charges on them, 
the deficiency must be “expensed” on shipping office. 

Drivers a?id their assistants .—Drivers are required to receipt 
for all matter they receive, and are held personally responsible 
for all matter they receipt for. Delivery books must be checked 
by comparing with the packages before leaving the office, and 
charges must be collected as entered in the delivery book or the 
property returned to the office. Drivers are required to furnish 
themselves with a list of the company’s offices, the tariff to prin- 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


318 

cipal points, and the classification tariff; also with a copy of 
“rules and instructions” and be governed thereby. 

Statements .—Statements must be returned to the general ac¬ 
counting office monthly, numbered as rendered commencing 
with No. 1 for the first statement in each year, and must show 
the totals of each way-bill entered, giving the place from, num¬ 
ber, date “advanced charges,” “charges collected,” “charges 
prepaid,” additions, and deductions. The w r ay-bills should 
appear on statements in alphabetical order, and after footing 
each column on the statement a settlement should be made as 
per the prescribed form showing the cash balance to be remitted 
to the treasurer of the company. Statements, way-bills, and 
vouchers for loss and damage, taxes, overcharges, or charges 
refunded must be enclosed in one package sealed, and so for¬ 
warded to the general accounting office. 

Origin of the “ Express ” System .—The “ express ” business in 
this country originated in 1839 with William F. Harnden, who, 
as a public messenger, carried parcels from Boston to New 
York, and later organized a system of express transportation on 
a larger scale than had been heretofore known. In 1840 a com¬ 
peting express was started by P. B. Burke and Alvan Adams, 
and Harnden & Co. established a foreign business and extended 
their local lines. The formation of several other express com¬ 
panies soon followed, and in a few years consolidated respect¬ 
ively with the “ American ” and the “ Adams ” Express Compa¬ 
nies. The United States Express Company was established in 

1853- 


TELEGRAPHY. 


319 


PART SEVENTH 


appgddix. 


SECTION LIX. 

STANDARD TIME. 

The subject of standard time has for several years 
received serious attention from scientific men and associa¬ 
tions, and the present adopted standard has the emphatic appro¬ 
val of a number or scientific associations, among them the 
American Association for the Advancement of Science; the 
American Metrological Society; the United States Army Signal 
Service; the principal observatories, etc. 

The plan was recommended by Secretary W. F. Allen, to the 
General Time Convention held in Chicago, 1883, and the 
railways have now adopted it by what may be considered unani¬ 
mous action, as practically no opposition has been manifested. 


Difference in time .—The meaning of the phrase “difference in 
time” is too well known to require explanation. It is sufficient 
to say that for every fifteen miles one travels west he will find 
his watch just one minute too fast; and when he has traveled 
nine hundred miles, or fifteen degrees of longitude, his watch 
will be just one hour too fast. The difference in time caused 
endless confusion to railroads and every one who traveled. To 
remedy these evils the new plan has been adopted. 





320 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


The plan of the new system of time standards .—The new sys¬ 
tem of time is based respectively on the 6oth, 75th, 90th, 105th 
and 120th meridians, as recommended by the General and 
Southern Conventions. 

Under the new system there are five divisions of time on the 
North American Continent: Intercolonial (not used), embracing 
Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; Eastern, taking in the New 
England States, New York, Pennsylvania, and the States south 
of Pennsylvania; Central, including Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, 
Missouri and the States north and south of them; Mountain, 
comprising the roads west of the Missouri river in the moun¬ 
tains; and Pacific, taking in the lines on the Pacific coast. 

The railroad officials of the Continent decided to adopt as 
their standard of regulation the time of the Greenwich Obser¬ 
vatory, London, England, and as the longitude in which their 
roads were situated was so many times fifteen degrees westward 
from Greenwich, they made their standard of time that many 
hours slower than Greenwich time. Hence the 60th degree of 
longitude is four hours slower than Greenwich time; the 75th, 
five hours slower; the 90th, six hours; the 105th, seven hours; 
and the 120th, eight hours—thus making five different standards 
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 

The following table shows the difference between the former 
time in use and the “Standard time” adopted on the 18th of 
November, 1883: 

COMPARED WITH SEVENTY-FIFTH MERIDIAN TIME. 


Albany, N. Y., 

time is 

5 

minutes faster. 

Baltimore, Md., 

II 

6 

11 

slower. 

Bath, Me., 

II 

20 

11 

faster. 

Boston, Mass., 

<1 

16 

l« 

II 

Charlestown, £. C., 

11 

i 5 

II 

slower. 

Detroit, Mich., 

I I 

32 

II 

If 

Hamilton, Ont., 

If 

19 

II 

II 

Montreal, Que., 

II 

6 

II 

faster. 

New London, Conn., 

II 

12 

II 

II 





telegraphy. 


321 


New York City, 
Philadelphia, Pa., 
Port Hope, Canada, 
Port Huron, Mich., 
Portland, Me., 
Providence, R. I., 
Richmond, Va., 
Savannah, Ga., 
Toronto, Can., 
Washington, D. C., 


COMPARED WITH NINETIETH MERIDIAN TIME. 

Atchison, Kan., 

time is 24 

minutes slower. 

Atlanta, Ga„ 

“ 22 

44 

faster. 

Chicago, Ill., 

“ 9 

tt 

ti 

Cincinnati, Ohio, 

“ 22 

tt 

i i 

Columbus, Ohio, 

“ 28 

tt 

ti 

Detroit, Mich., 

" 28 

It 

11 

Dubuque, Iowa, 

“ 3 

II 

slower. 

Hannibal, Mo., 

** 1 

it 

ft 

Houston, Tex., 

“ 24 

It 

tt 

Indianapolis, Ind., 

“ 16 

ti 

faster. 

Jefferson City, Mo., 

" 9 

a 

slower. 

Kansas City, Mo., 

“ J 9 

tt 

ti 

Louisville, Ky., 

" 18 

a 

faster. 

Macon, Ga., 

“ 29 

1 1 

tt 

Minneapolis, Minn., 

“ 13 

tt 

slower. 

Mobile, Ala., 

“ 8 

it 

faster. 

Nashville, Tenn., 

“ 13 

tt 

11 

New Orleans, La., 

“ exactly the same. 

Omaha, Neb., 

“ 24 

minutes slower. 

Port Huron, Mich., 

“ 30 

1 i 

faster. 

St. Louis, Mo., 

“ 1 

It 

slower. 

St. Paul, Minn., 

“ 12 

i t 

< t 

Savannah, Ga., 

“ 36 

i 1 

faster. 

Selma, Ala., 

“ 12 

t( 

i « 

Sioux City, Iowa, 

“ 26 

t « 

slower. 

Terre Haute, Ind., 

“ 10 

4 1 

faster. 

Vicksburg, Miss., 

“ 3 

11 

slower. 

Winona, Minn., 

“ 7 

tt 

ft 

COMPARED WITH ONE HUNDRED 

AND FIFTH MERIDIAN TIME. 


Denver, Colorado, time is exactly the same. 


1C 

4 

minutes 

faster. 

tt 

z 

1 < 

slower. 

a 

14 

tt 

It 

a 

30 

14 

tt 

tt 

19 

41 

faster. 

11 

14 

4 4 

4 4 

it 

10 

ti 

slower. 

tt 

24 

i 1 

44 

tt 

17 

44 

44 

tt 

8 

44 

44 


322 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Laramie, Wyoming Territory, time is 6 miuutes slower. 

Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, “ 28 “ “ 

COMPARED WITH ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTIETH MERIDIAN TIME*. 

Kalama, Washington Territory, 10 minutes slower. 

Portland, Oregon, 10 '* “ 

San Francisco, California, to " “ 


TELEGRAPHY. 


3 a 3 


SECTION LX. 

UNIFORM TRAIN SIGNALS. 

“There are three great principles under which all well man¬ 
aged roads are sought to be governed, viz. : Safety, efficiency 
and economy; and all of these will be promoted by the adoption 
of a uniform system of signals.” 

The General Time Convention, held in Chicago, October, 
1883, took unanimous action on the question of the adoption of 
a system of uniform train signals for use upon the railways of 
the United States and Canada. 

At this convention a committee of prominent managers made 
an excellent and carefully prepared report, as the result of close 
investigation of the subject, and believe that the system they 
have recommended is the best that can be devised for general 
use. 

“ The report discusses in a very clear and practical manner 
hand and lamp signals, bell cord signals, whistle signals, station¬ 
ary signals, switch targets, danger signals for rear protection, and 
torpedo signals, and recommends a code in each case, which is 
based on careful study and experience and on the practice, gen¬ 
erally, of the greatest number of roads.” 

Present indications point to the adoption of the new system 
proposed, which will no doubt ere long take the place of the 
present arbitrary and widely differing methods, to the great ad¬ 
vantage of the railway men of the country. 

In view of this fact we herewith present the following sum¬ 
mary from the official pamphlet, issued by the National Railway 
Publication Company under instructions from the General Time 
Convention, which clearly states the principles upon which the 
system was formulated, and fully illustrates the plan proposed. 


3 2 4 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


Fundamental Principles covering the form and use of Signals .— 
In considering the question, the committee arrived at the con¬ 
clusion that there were certain fundamental principles covering 
the formation and use of signals which should never be lost 
sight of. 

First. —Hand and lamp signals’should be as nearly as possible 
like the motions a person uninstructed would give to convey the 
same meaning. 

Second. —All signals should be so plain as to make it impos¬ 
sible to misunderstand or confuse them. 

Third. —As far as possible, no signal should be made to con¬ 
vey more than one meaning. 

Fourth. —Signals should be exhibited in the location which 
will make them the most plainly visible, and for the longest 
time, to those for whose information they are displayed. 

In ascertaining the relation which the above principles bear to common prac¬ 
tice, the committee decided that the time and labor that would be required to 
prepare statistics showing the practice of all the roads in the United States 
would be so great as to render it impracticable, and therefore (taking into con¬ 
sideration the train mileage and equipment) twenty-five roads were selected (ex¬ 
cept for switch signals) representing nearly 50 per cent, of the total train mile¬ 
age of the United States, 33 per cent, of the equipment and 25 per cent, of the 
track mileage, and in making their recommendations, have endeavored to recon¬ 
cile them with the practice as shown by these statistics and their own view of 
what is consistent with the principles they have assumed to be correct. 

Hand and Lamp Signals. —To avoid confusion these signals 
should be made so that it is possible to give the same motion at 
night when the lamp is in the hand. There are four communi¬ 
cations or signals necessary to be made in that manner, viz.: 
“Go ahead,” “Stop,” “Back up,” “Train parted.” 

The motions made to convey these ideas should be as near 
like those made by an uninstructed person to produce the same 
movement as possible. 

Persons giving signals are more frequently behind the engine 
than elsewhere, and the motions should be formed for that 


TELEGRAPHY. 


325 


position. The examination of the dozen or more persons with 
no railroad experience, assuming them to be placed behind the 

engine, resulted in a majority of the cases in motions resembling 
the following: • 

“Go ahead.”—An up and down motion. 

“Stop.”—A motion crosswise with the track 
“Back up.”—A motion in a circle. 



The go ahead signal was given by raising the hand above the 
head and moving it energetically forward in the direction it was 
decided to move the train, until the arm took a horizontal 
position, when the hand was again raised and the motion re¬ 
peated. Looked at from the front, the hand has the appearance 
of moving up and down. (Fig. 22.) 

The signal to stop was made by moving one or both arms 
violently across the supposed line of movement. (Fig. 23.) 

The back up signal was made by standing facing the engine, 
extending the arm towards the engineer, and moving it in the 
are of a circle over the head, at the same time slowly twisting 
the body until the hand is pointed almost in the direction the 
train was to move. The arm was then dropped and returned to 
the first position. The plane of the circle thus made was at an 
angle of about 45 degrees to the track, and the hand described 







3 2 6 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


the complete circle, every point of which was visible from the 
engine. (Fig. 24.) 



(FIG 25) TRAIN PARTED. 


(Fig 24) back up. 


Train parted. —A motion in a verticle circle at arms length 
across the track, given continuously until answered by the 
engineer. (Fig. 25.) 

No examination was made for a movement to indicate “ train parted," as it is 
a matter of technique which cannot be understood by the uninitiated. 

Bell Cord Signals. —Having considered hand and lamp sig¬ 
nals, which are methods of transmitting information from a train 
crew to an engineer, we will continue the subject by the con¬ 
sideration of bell cord signals, which are for the same object. 

In transmitting these signals correctly, it is very desirable that 
they should be made as brief as possible, and thereby reduce 
the liability for errors to a minimum. 

1 tap, “Start.”—Train standing. 

2 taps, “Stop.”—Train running. 

2 “ “Call in flagman.”—Train standing. 

3 “ “Stop at next station.”—Train running. 

3 “ “Back up.”—Train standing. 

4 “ “Reduce speed.”—Train running. 

The above signals are recommended in accordance with com- 









TELEGRAPHY. 


327 


mon practice, as shown by the statistics, except the signal of 
*stop immediately,” which has been deviated from for the 
reason that this signal is also the result of the train parting, and, 
if then obeyed by the engineer, would probably result in a col¬ 
lision with the detached portion. 

Whistle Signals .—In considering these signals the committee 
has been enabled to use much more extensive statistics than in 
the other class of signals,, by reason of the very full table pub¬ 
lished with the September edition of the “Official Railway 
Guide” for the year 1881. 

The committee has deviated from the custom almost generally 
in use (two short blasts), believing that two long blasts is better 
for a signal to start, and that two short blasts should be used by 
the engineer to answer conductors, flagman’s and others’ signals. 

The committee also deviates from the general custom in 
recommending four long blasts of the whistle to call in the 
flagman. 

They not only think that four long blasts answer the purpose 
better, but that it is the common practice, notwithstanding the 
general rules on the subject to the contrary. 

On many roads it may not be deemed advisable to adopt any 
signal to send a flagman out, but. when thought necessary, the 
committee recommends the use of five short blasts, when, from 
some sudden emergency, the engineer considers it necessary to 
notify the flagman that the rear of the train must immediately 
be protected. 

Whistle Signals Recommended .— 


Signals. Meaning. 

— ..Signal for approaching stations, railroad crossings 

and junctions, 
o . Apply brakes; stop. 


Pi 

! 


Off breaks; start. 

Answer to any train, except train parted. 
Train parted. 


o o 








328 COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 

(S) o o o .Back up. 

(R) 000 .Calling attention to signals carried. 

~ — .Call in flagman. 

0000 .. Engineer’s call for signals from switchmen, watchmen 

and trainmen. 

— — 00 .Road crossing. 

00000 .Send flagman out. 

Succession of jfjSTo. Stock alarm. 


Explanation of signs:—o short sound; — long sound; (S) slow pulls; (R) 
rapid pulls. 

Stationary Fixed Signals. —The efforts of the committee have 
been directed to make red a signal of danger only , and to be used 
for no other purpose, whatever, than to bring trains to a full 
stop. 

All signals of color, shape or position, not held in the hand, 
but placed stationary and by the side of the track, or affixed on 
a moving train, are included under this heading. 

The principal use of such signals is to indicate either Danger! 
Stop! ( red)\ Caution! Proceed with care! (green); Safety! 
Track clear ! (white), or, if scheduled to do so, Stop for traffic ! 
(white a?id green). 

The fixed signals on trains have other meanings and will be 
considered hereafter. 

Each of the four first-mentioned should be indicated by a 
signal of shape or color entirely distinct from all the others; 
and as colors are not readily distinguishable at a distance they 
should always, when practicable, be reinforced by shape or po¬ 
sition. 

Shape of Signals. —A man standing by a track, desiring to 
stop a train, would naturally extend his arm across the track. 
The outlines would be a perpendiculai object with a horizontal 
arm protruding at right-angles near its top. If he desired to 
give no signal he would drop his hands and his outline would 
be perpendicular. 










TELEGRAPHY. 


329 

The signal of danger and safety should conform to these out¬ 
lines as near as possible, and be combined with red and white 
at night. 

The sign that would naturally suggest itself as one of caution 
would be a compromise between danger and safety , or a perpen¬ 
dicular object with an arm extending out and down at an angle 
of 45 degrees, and combined with green at night. 

In conformity with the fourth principle mentioned in the first 
part of this report, all signals should be placed on the engineer’s 
side of the track, as he approaches them, unless the land con¬ 
tours making them more easily seen by the engineer if placed 
on the other side. 

Switch Targets .—Switch targets should be placed on the en¬ 
gineer’s side as he runs towards the point of the switch, as there 
is more' danger when running in that direction than when 
through the switch. 

In case separate signals for trains, running in each direction, 
are placed on the same standard, the arm on the right side 
as the signal is approached should ordinarily govern the move¬ 
ment. 

Signals for trains in one direction only ordinarily project from 
the right side of the upright as you stand facing it in the direc 
tion of the target. 

Danger Signals for Rear Protection. —These signals should 
be displayed in an elevated position to the rear only, and never 
shown when the target is not on the main track. 

The fixed signals on trains are used to indicate : 

“ Train following with the same rights as the train carrying; 
the signals.” 

“Train following, which is irregular, or extra.” 

“ Train carrying the signals, itself irregular,” rear of the train- 
and for rear protection. 

The committee recommend a green signal carried on the 


330 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


front of tne engine to indicate a “ train following with the same 
rights as the train carrying the signals.” 

A combined gree?i and white signal carried on the front of an 
engine to indicate a “ train following which is irregular.” 

A white signal carried on the front of an engine to indicate 
that the “ train carrying the signal is itself irregular.” 

The rear of every train (passenger or freight) should be plain¬ 
ly marked to enable those interested to know that all of the 
train has passed; and that green signals be used for this 
purpose which should be combined with red signals so that one 
lamp can serve both purposes. 

Torpedo Signals. —(i) “Danger!” “Stop!” (2) “Caution!” 
“ Run carefully ! ” 

The signal for danger should consist of fewer detonations 
than the one for caution, so that if one cap fails to explode in a 
“ caution ” battery, the signal becomes one of danger. 

Concerning the Use of Signals .—The committee recommend 
that a danger signal be used to indicate “Train orders.” 

Trains on sidings should clear and remove their signals of 
danger and display those of caution, otherwise trains passing 
on the main track will be stopped. 

The rear of a train is the part that, when the train is proceed¬ 
ing in its authorized direction, will pass over a given point last, 
and markers should be displayed at that point, and no train 
should be reported or considered by until the markers are seen. 


TELEGRAPHY. 


331 


SECTION LXI. 


TELEGRAPHIC AND RAILWAY NOTES. 


Operating rooms in large cities .—The operating rooms of the 
Western Union—and sometimes of other companies—in cities, 
are located on the top floor of the buildings occupied. First-class 
operators are assigned regular wires. Second-class, or inferior 
operators, have charge of one or more “ way ” wires. The 
manager of the operating room has charge of all chief and sub 
chief operators, as well as of operators and check clerks, A 
“wire chief” has charge of all wires, locates “grounds,” “cross¬ 
es,” “ escapes.” etc. Chiefs have charge of “ squads ” of ope¬ 
rators and checks, and sub-chiefs have supervision of a certain 
number of operators forming a squad. Operators appear for 
duty at the hours assigned them, and must be on time. 

Way wires. —Wires which run through and connect with 
small towns over which the business of the same is transmitted, 
the volume of which is not large. 

“ Regular ,” or “ heavy wires.” —Wires running to the great 
Commercial Centers of the Country on which the amount of 
business transacted is enormous. 

Rates , additional words .— 



25 3° 35 4o 45 5° 55 60 6 5 7° 75 80 8 5 9° I ‘°° 
22233344 5 5 5 5 6 6 7 


The rate for each 
additional word is 


Insuring honesty of the employes of railway companies. 

“ It is a fact not generally known that the railway companies are, 
one and all, taking steps to insure the honesty of their em¬ 
ployes. Hitherto all officials who have handled any large sums 


332 


COMMERCIAL AND RAILWAY 


of money belonging to their companies have usually given a 
bond signed by one or more friends, men who were known to 
be substantial. In case the bonds were forfeited, the companies 
have often found it wiser to compromise than to take action 
against the persons who signed the paper, as by so doing they 
incurred no one’s ill-will and did not bring their road into un¬ 
popularity, and perhaps lose ten times over the amount of the 
shortage. Then again, when a bond for a large amount was 
signed by an active business man, he would be shown by the 
person whom he thus favored courtesies which could not be ex¬ 
tended to all shippers. In this way the railway management was 
often embarrassed, both by honest and dishonest employes. In 
order to obviate these difficulties railway companies have now 
recourse to the different guarantee companies which are located 
in this country and Canada. In all large stations the cashiers 
give security, the guarantee company charging nominally three- 
fourths per cent, on the amount of the bond Half of this 
sum is borne by the company and half by the employe. At the 
small stations the agent of the company is himself required to 
furnish security. This system is used by the Pennsylvania com¬ 
pany. by the roads generally throughout the West and North¬ 
west, and to some extent by Eastern lines, and it looks as if it 
was destined to become universal in a few years.” 

Average number of railway employes .—The census volume 
pertaining to transportation, issued in 1884, show r s the average 
number of employes per annum engaged upon the railroads of 


the United States to be as follows : 

General officers. 3.375 

General office clerks. 8.655 

Station men. 63,380 

TRAIN MEN. 

Engineers. 18,977 

Conductors... I2 ,419 

All others. ..... 48,254 

Total. 79.650 










TELEGRAPHY. 


333 


SHOP MEN. 


Machinists. w 

carpenters.. //. 23 ; 2 7 02 

AU others. 43)74 6 


T To , tal . 89,714 

Trackmen. 122,489 

All other employes. 51.694 


Aggregate. 418,957 


Salary —The aggregate average salary is $41.12 per month, 
the highest being paid by the Central Pacific, $63.21 per month, 
and the lowest by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, $32 per 
month, the average of the Pennsylvania Railroad being $41.72. 

The plan of paying employes by check is increasing in favor 
with the railway companies, and it will not be many years before 
all have adopted it. 

Advantage of the “check ” or “ draft system .”—“The system is 
advantageous in many respects. It protects the paymaster from 
mistakes in counting out money, and consequent loss out of his 
own pocket. Instead of receipting the roll, the employe’s re¬ 
ceipt on the back of the draft answers the purpose and the 
draft furnishes a complete and concise record of the transaction. 
The advantage to the employe lies in the fact that he will be 
compelled to go to the bank and draw his money, and a famil¬ 
iarity with banking affairs and a balance left for them once at 
the bank may lead men to start a bank account who have here¬ 
tofore spent their money as rapidly as they have earned it.” 

The largest railway system in the world\ —“The vast rail¬ 
way system formed by the consolidation of the Missouri Pacific 
and Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific lines has a total mileage of 
9,658 miles—by far the greatest combination under one man¬ 
agement in the world. The roads composing it are as follows : 
The Missouri Pacific railway; Central Branch Union Pacific 
railroad; Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway; St. Louis, Iron 
Mountain & Southern railway; Texas & Pacific railway; Interna¬ 
tional & Great Northern railroad; Galveston, Houston & Hen¬ 
derson railroad; Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific railway.” 




























































